[DETERMINATION OF HORMONAL IODINE IN THE PLASMA (PROTEIN-BOUND RADIOACTIVE IODINE) AND INDEX OF CONVERSION OF INORGANIC IODINE INTO ORGANIC IODINE IN RHEUMATIC PATIENTS)].
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Humans↗
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Iodine kinetics and effectiveness of stable iodine prophylaxis after intake of radioactive iodine: a review.
Ingestion of potassium iodide (KI) offers effective protection against irradiation of the thyroid after accidental exposure to radioactive iodine. This prophylaxis aims at rapidly obtaining maximal thyroid protection without adverse effects. This article reviews studies on iodine kinetics in humans and on the efficacy of KI in protecting the thyroid. In adults with normal thyroid function, ingestion of 100 mg of iodide just before exposure to radioactive iodine blocks at least 95% of the thyroid dose. If exposure persists after iodide ingestion (100 mg), the percentage of averted dose may decrease significantly. Daily ingestion of a dose of 15 mg of KI would then maintain the thyroid blockade at a level above 90%. The efficacy of iodide and the occurrence of antithyroid effects also depend on external and individual factors such as dietary iodine intake, thyroid function, and age. The KI dosage regimen should be adjusted for age at exposure. For the fetus, the newborn, children, and adolescents, the risk of radiation-induced thyroid cancer in case of accidental exposure to radioactive iodine justifies KI prophylaxis, despite the risk of hypothyroidism, especially in newborns. For the elderly, the benefits of KI may be lower than the risk of iodine-induced hyperthyroidism.
Dose-Response Relationship, Drug↗
[Effects of fluorine and fluoridated iodine on the iodine content of the rabbit thyroid (Determination of the organic iodine content of the thyroid, autographies of the pituitary gland. Iodine 131)].
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Animals↗
[Iodine prophylaxis and iodine deficiency; reliability of the results of iodine therapy as a basis for the iodine deficiency theory].
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Goiter↗
[Iodine uptake with food and iodine metabolism. Study of the main sources of alimentary iodine and of human need for stable iodine].
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Animals↗
Iodine deficiency in Azerbaijan after the discontinuation of an iodine prophylaxis program: reassessment of iodine intake and goiter prevalence in schoolchildren.
The goal of this study was to assess the prevalence of iodine deficiency (ID) in Azerbaijan after the discontinuation of an iodine prophylaxis program by assessing the prevalence of goiter, iodine intake, and thyroid function. The study included 942 schoolchildren (475 boys and 467 girls) ages 8-14 years, from 13 distinct regions. The survey included the following: (1) clinical evaluation; (2) assessment of thyroid volume both by ultrasound and by palpation; (3) determination of iodide in a morning urine specimen using the classic Sandel-Kolthoff reaction in 347 schoolchildren; (4) determinations of thyrotropin (TSH), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), thyroglobulin (Tg), and anti-thyroid peroxidase (TPO) in serum (n = 165) and TSH in whole blood spotted on filter paper (n = 942). The prevalence of goiter for the whole country was determined by ultrasound (US) to be 86% and by palpation 66%, reaching 100% in the mountainous regions of Caucasus. The median urinary iodine excretion (UIE) was 54 microg/L, reaching level of 26 and 39 microg/L in the Caucasus region. In conclusion, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) classification, Azerbaijan now has mild to moderate ID (median UIE, 54 microg/L) and in the mountainous regions with severe ID. The high prevalence of goiter and the low UIE emphasizes the need for urgent medical reintervention. An iodination program is now implemented by our team in the mountainous regions under the auspice of the government of Azerbaijan.
Adolescent↗
Iodine content of infant formulas and iodine intake of premature babies: high risk of iodine deficiency.
As part of a study of thyroid function in premature babies, the iodine content of their mothers' breast milk, that of 32 formulas from different brands used in Spain, and that of 127 formulas used in other countries was determined. Breast milk contained more iodine--mean (SEM) 10 (1) microgram/dl--than most of the formulas, especially those for premature babies. Iodine intakes were therefore below the recommended daily amount (RDA) for newborns: babies of 27-30 weeks' gestational age took 3.1 (1.1) micrograms/day at 5 days of age and 29.8 (2.7) micrograms by 2 months of age. This problem is not exclusive to Spanish premature babies as the iodine content of many of the formulas on sale in other countries was also inadequate. It is concluded that preterm infants who are formula fed are at high risk of iodine deficiency.
Bottle Feeding↗
Iodine nutrition in ewes: effects of low to high iodine intake on iodine content of biological fluids in pregnant and lactating ewes.
In a first experiment, 2 groups of 46 and 47 multiparous ewes received diets which provided an iodine intake of 0.36 and 0.26 mg/kg dry matter (group C) and, 2.01 and 1.94 mg/kg (group D), respectively, for pregnancy and lactation. In a second experiment, 3 groups of 10 nulliparous ewes received diets which provided an I intake of 0.13 and 0.12 mg/kg dry matter (group A), 0.22 and 0.20 mg/kg dry matter (group B), and 10.77 and 8.88 mg/kg dry matter (group E), respectively, for pregnancy and lactation. Observations and sampling were carried out on the ewes from the first third of pregnancy to the 2nd and the 6th week of lactation. The diets provided adequate nutrition for pregnant and lactating ewes. Dietary I content had no effect on the dry matter intake, the size or the weight of the litter and the length of pregnancy. Plasma inorganic iodine (PII) was less affected by the I intake during lactation than during pregnancy. The excretion of I in milk induced a decrease in PII between pregnancy and lactation. The I in urine expressed as microgram I/g creatinine was largely affected by the intake. Colostrum I was 6.7, 4.0, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.5 times higher in groups A, B, C, D and E than the I in milk collected 1 week postpartum. Milk iodine (MI) content and the ratio MI/PII were markedly dependent on the I intake. During pregnancy, plasma T4 concentration decreased for each group. Plasma T4 concentration remained low during lactation in the low I intake group, whereas it increased at the same time in the other groups. The plasma T3 concentration decreased at the 6th week of lactation in the highest I intake group. Experimental values showed that 0.12 mg I/kg dry matter induced depletion in the I stocks of pregnant and lactating ewes, whereas an I intake above 10 mg I/mg dry matter disturbed the metabolism of thyroid hormones.
Animals↗
Concurrent reduction of iodine and oxidation of EDTA at the active site of horseradish peroxidase: probing the iodine binding site by optical difference spectroscopy and steady state kinetic analysis for the formation of active enzyme-I(+)-EDTA ternary complex for iodine reductase activity.
Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) catalyzes the reduction of iodine to iodide by EDTA with pseudocatalatic degradation of H2O2 to O2 (Banerjee et al., (1986) J. Biol. Chem. 261, 10592-10597; and Banerjee (1989) J. Biol. Chem. 264, 9188-9194). The reduction of iodine (I+) is dependent on EDTA concentration and is blocked by spin trap, DMPO, indicating the involvement of free radical species in the reduction process. Incubation of EDTA with both HRP and H2O2 results in the appearance of triplet ESR signal of spin-trapped EDTA radical (aN = 15 G), indicating its one-electron oxidation to a nitrogen-centered monocation radical (N-N+). The latter oxidizes H2O2 to evolve O2 and regenerate EDTA. In the presence of I+, a ternary complex of compound I-I(+)-EDTA is formed, which generates compound II-I. complex and both nitrogen-centered dication radical (N(+)-N+) through intermolecular electron transfer from EDTA nitrogens. Compound II-I. complex is further reduced similarly by another molecule of EDTA to form ferric enzyme, I-, and (N(+)-N+).(N(+)-N+) the oxidation product of EDTA, which may be released from the active site and, being more reactive, oxidizes H2O2 to O2 at a faster rate to regenerate EDTA. The existence of (N(+)-N+) is suggested from the similarity of its ESR signal with that of single nitrogen-centered monocation radical (N-N+). EDTA degradation by oxidative decarboxylation due to two-electron oxidation from the same or both nitrogen, atoms is not evident, and EDTA concentration remains the same throughout the reactions.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Binding Sites↗
[Systemic and local reactions in leg phlebography with special reference to iodine-containing contrast media. Randomized, prospective, intraindividual double-blind study using iodine-containing contrast media of different osmolarity and iodine concentration. I].
Iopamidol, a non-ionic, tri-iodinated radiographic contrast medium, was superior to the ionic substances ioxaglate, ioglicinate and ioxitalamate in the ascending phlebography. In 180 examinations on 90 patients (report I), which were carried out intraindividually by double blind technique, distinct differences were recorded in particular at pain registration. Since iopamidol was well tolerated in nearly all cases, pain was registered in 10% in ioxaglate, in 22% in ioglicinate and in 37% in ioxitalamate. Anaphylactoid reactions had been observed in one case (1.1%) with iopamidol, in 7% with ioglicinate, in 10% with ioxitalamate and in 17% with ioxaglate. The low incidence of clinically manifest postphlebographic thrombophlebitis and deep venous thrombosis was surprising. In no case was deep venous thrombosis seen after the application of low-osmolar substances, whereas transitory superficial vein irritations could be observed more frequently (10% in iopamidol and 21% in ioxaglate). In ioglicinate as well as in ioxitalamate one deep vein thrombosis and in 10% resp. 30% superficial thrombophlebitis were recorded.
Contrast Media↗
Sensitivity of iodine deficiency indicators and iodine status in Turkey.
BACKGROUND: Iodine deficiency is a major health problem worldwide. Goiter prevalence and the median urinary iodine concentration in a population usually define endemic iodine deficiency. In addition to goiter prevalence and median urinary concentration, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and thyroxine have been used as iodine deficiency indicators. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate endemic goiter prevalence in Western Anatolia, Turkey, and to evaluate the sensitivity of thyroglobulin and height percentile as iodine deficiency indicators. SUBJECTS: We examined 727 school-children (378 girls, 349 boys) in two cities (Bolu and Düzce) and six mountainous rural areas, in West Anatolia. Of the 727 children, 234 were from four urban schools, and 493 were from eight rural schools. METHODS: Clinical examination and ultrasonography were used to evaluate goiter prevalence. Iodine in spot urine, serum total thyroxine (T4), serum free thyroxine (FT4), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and thyroglobulin (Tg) were measured. Iodine deficiency severity was classified based on thyroid volume measurements by ultrasonography and urinary iodine excretion. RESULTS: The degree of iodine deficiency according to concentration of urinary iodine was severe in 276 children (38%), moderate in 151 (20.8%), mild in 114 (15.7%), and within normal levels in 186 (25.4%). Although urban areas showed normal or mild urinary iodine excretion, four rural areas showed from mild to severe iodine deficiency (p < 0.001). Thyroid volumes of the severe iodine deficiency group were significantly higher than those of moderate and mild iodine deficiency groups (p < 0.001). There was no significant difference between thyroid volumes in moderate and mild iodine deficiency groups. FT4 levels of the severe iodine deficiency group were significantly lower than in moderate and mild iodine deficiency groups (p < 0.001). There was no significant correlation between TSH and iodine excretion (r = 0.01, p > 0.05). Thyroglobulin (Tg) levels were significantly different between all groups (p < 0.001). There was a significant negative correlation between Tg and urinary iodine excretion (r = -0.27, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Severe and moderate iodine deficiency areas are more prevalent in Turkey than mild and normal iodine concentration areas. In addition to urinary iodine concentration and thyroid volume, height percentile and Tg are also sensitive markers for endemic iodine deficiency. TSH screening should be performed nationwide in Turkey. We recommend compulsory iodination of table and industrial salt.
Biomarkers↗
Neonatal hypothyroid screening in monitoring of iodine deficiency and iodine supplementation in Poland.
UNLABELLED: Neonatal hypothyroid screening in Poland is standardised and all newborns screening data are registered in central data base in the National Institute of Mother and Child. About 400,000 newborns are screened per year for hypothyroidism (TSH) and phenylketonuria (PKU). Unfortunately, obstetric clinics still use antiseptics that contain iodine. According to our data 71% of clinics used iodine in 1998 (58% iodine tincture and 13% povidone iodine) and 58.2% (35.4 iodine tincture and 13% povidone iodine) in the year 2000. Presence of iodine resulted in over 3 times increase of a percentage of TSH levels over cut off, increasing the number of false positives in the hypothyroid screening. Analysis of TSH distribution for iodine containing and iodine free hospitals gave totally different estimation of iodine deficiency according to WHO criteria. In the group of iodine free hospitals 24 regions were classified as not deficient, 9 regions were borderline with a fraction of TSH levels over 5 mlU/l of 3-5%. 10 regions could not be analysed because all hospitals declared use of iodine. In the second group all regions were iodine deficient. TSH distribution since 1994 shows significant decrease of percentage of TSH levels over cut off from 2.23% in 1994 to 0.16 in 1997 and to 0.12 in 2000. These changes are most probably connected with successive introduction of iodine supplementation which became obligatory in 1997 and suggest that iodine supplementation covers iodine requirements during pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Iodine deficiency and iodine supplementation in Poland can be studied using TSH blood spot newborn screening results in correlation with data on interfering factors and in reference to modified criteria for the analytical test and the population. To reduce false positive rate in neonatal hypothyroid screening iodine containing antiseptics, particularly iodine tincture, should be withdrawn from all obstetrics clinics in Poland.
Anti-Infective Agents, Local↗
Urinary iodine concentration of pregnant women and female adolescents as an indicator of excessive iodine intake in Sri Lanka.
BACKGROUND: Mild deficiencies and excesses of iodine have deleterious effects in both females and males. The iodine status of the population after implementation of the universal salt iodization program in Sri Lanka is not known. OBJECTIVE: This cross-sectional study was carried out to assess the iodine status of pregnant women and female adolescents, with urinary iodine concentration used as the measure of outcome. METHODS: The participants were 100 women in the first trimester of pregnancy and 99 female adolescents in Kuliyapitiya, Kurunegala District, North-Western Province, Sri Lanka. The urinary iodine concentration was measured in a casual urine sample from each subject. The iodate contents of salt samples collected from households of the adolescents participating in the study were also measured. RESULTS: The median urinary iodine concentration of 185.0 microg/L and the prevalence of values under 50 microg/L of only 1% among the pregnant women indicate adequate iodine intake and optimal iodine nutrition. The median urinary iodine concentration (213.1 microg/L) among female adolescents indicates a more than adequate iodine intake and a risk of iodine-induced hyperthyroidism. Approximately 8% and 4% of the adolescents and pregnant women, respectively, had urinary iodine concentrations in the range of mild iodine deficiency (51 to 100 microg/L). More than half of the adolescents (56%) and 39% of the pregnant women had urinary iodine concentrations higher than optimal. The median iodine content in salt samples was 12.7 ppm. Only 20.2% of the samples were adequately iodized, and 10.1% of the samples had very high iodine levels. CONCLUSIONS: Female adolescents and pregnant women had no iodine deficiency, but a considerable proportion of them, especially female adolescents, were at risk for iodine-induced hyperthyroidism. There is thus a need for proper monitoring of the salt iodization program to achieve acceptable iodine status.
Adolescent↗
Impact of iodine supplementation of dairy cows on milk production and iodine concentrations in milk.
AIM: To determine the effect of iodine supplementation on milk production and iodine concentrations in milk for pasture-fed, seasonally calving dairy cows. METHODS: The study was run over two consecutive seasons on the same dairy farm. In Trial One, 294 Friesian dairy cows were either untreated or injected intramuscularly three times with iodised oil (2,370 mg iodine/dose) at the start of lactation (Day 1) and at about 100-day intervals thereafter. Iodine concentrations in milk were determined prior to each injection on Days 1, 98 and 210, and milk, fat and protein yields measured on Days 43, 98, 176 and 238. In Trial Two, 234 Friesian dairy cows were either untreated or injected intramuscularly with iodised oil (2,370 mg iodine/dose) in early lactation (Day 1) and 99 days later. Iodine concentrations in milk were determined prior to treatment on Days 1, 55 and 161. Serum thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) concentrations were determined in the latter two samples and milk, protein and fat yields were determined on Days 25, 119, 182 and 221. In both trials, pasture was sampled at 1- or 3-monthly intervals and iodine concentrations in herbage measured. RESULTS: Iodine concentrations in pasture averaged 0.24 mg/kg dry matter (DM) in both seasons and varied little over the experimental period. Iodine concentrations in milk from unsupplemented cows were <20 microg/L in both trials. Three iodine injections at about 100-day intervals increased iodine concentrations in milk to 58 microg/L for at least 98 days after each treatment. Two iodine injections at about 100-day intervals raised milk iodine concentrations to 160 microg/L and 211 microg/L at least 55 days after each treatment, but had no effect on serum thyroid hormone concentrations. Iodine supplementation had no significant effect on milk, milkfat or milk protein yield. CONCLUSIONS: Pastures in New Zealand that contained 0.24 mg iodine/kg DM appeared to provide an adequate iodine intake for dairy cows. Intramuscular injections of iodine resulted in significant increases in iodine concentrations in milk. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Increasing iodine concentrations in milk via intramuscular injection of iodine could provide a method for significantly increasing iodine intakes of humans, in particular, children.
Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗
Iodine nutrition, nodular thyroid disease, and urinary iodine excretion in a German university study population.
We determined the influence of different nutritional factors on the urinary iodine excretion in an East German university population. First, we assessed iodine excretion in spot urine samples. Second, we measured iodine content in the university canteen meals, where approximately 20% of the probands had regular meals. Third, we used a special food questionnaire to assess for other sources of nutritional iodine intake, namely iodine tablets, fish consumption, etc. Fourth, we determined the actual prevalence of goiter and thyroid nodules in our probands by high-resolution ultrasonography. The mean urinary iodine excretion in our cohort was 109 +/- 81 microg/g level indicating a borderline adequate iodine intake (100-200). The frequency of thyroid nodules was 30% and the frequency of goiter 11%. Thyroid volumes greater than 18 mL and 25 mL were considered to be enlarged in adult women and men respectively. Urinary iodine excretion was not related to the presence of goiter or thyroid nodules. In addition urinary iodine excretion did not vary with regular consumption of canteen meals, which contained approximately 50% of the daily recommended iodine intake. In contrast probands with regular supplementary intake of iodine tablets had significantly higher values of urinary iodine excretion (169 +/- 130 microg/g) compared to participants without (103 +/- 87 microg/g). No other single nutritional factor (e.g., salt, milk, or bread) had a statistically significant impact on urinary iodine excretion or was able to raise the urinary iodine excretion above the level of marginal iodine deficiency. In summary, the nutritional iodine intake in a Saxonian study population was found to be close to the margin of iodine deficiency. This shows insufficient supplementation of iodine through iodized salt/industrialized food production.
Adult↗
Dietary iodine intake and urinary iodine excretion in normal Korean adults.
Korea is a region abundant in foods containing iodine such as seaweed and fish. An adequate amount of iodine consumption is extremely important as both a deficiency and excess of iodine can result in health problems. This study was undertaken to assess the iodine nutritional status of normal Korean adults who consume seaweed and fish, and to determine the relationship between the dietary iodine intake and the urinary excretion of iodine. The dietary assessment of iodine using a food frequency questionnaire and a urinary iodine excretion examination were carried out in 278 healthy adults. The iodide selective electrode (ISE) method was used to determine urinary iodine excretion. The average usual iodine intake of Korean adults was 479 micrograms per day (ranging from 61 micrograms to 4086 micrograms). There was no significant difference in sex or age. The major food sources of dietary iodine included seaweed (66%), milk and dairy products (11%), and fish (9%). The contribution of seaweed to the total iodine intake tended to increase with age while the contribution of milk decreased. The average urinary excretion of iodine was 674 micrograms/g creatinine and there was no significant difference in sex or age. The dietary iodine intake was positively correlated with the urinary excretion of iodine (gamma = 0.60, p < 0.01). The study data indicated that the iodine intake and excretion of Koreans depends mostly on the amount of seaweed consumption like sea tangle and sea mustard. As well, the current iodine intake and urinary iodine excretion by Koreans seems to be higher than in other countries.
Adult↗
Estimation of iodine in salt fortified with iodine & iron.
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: The National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), Hyderabad has developed double fortified salt (DFS) containing both iodine and iron to control the twin problems of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) and iron deficiency anaemia (IDA). When the iodine content of DFS was estimated by the conventional iodometric titration using sulphuric acid (H(2)SO(4)), problems such as wide variation between duplicate analysis and under/overestimations of iodine content were encountered, which led to inconsistent results. This study was undertaken to develop a modified method for the estimation of iodine in DFS so as to get reliable iodine content of DFS. METHODS: A modified method was developed using orthophosphoric acid (H(3)PO(4)) and the sensitivity of the method was confirmed by estimating the iodine content of potassium iodate (KIO(3)) standard at different concentrations of iodine (0 to 100 ppm). The iodine content of DFS and iodized salt (IS) from local market and factory was estimated by the modified method as well as the conventional iodometric titration and the results were compared. RESULTS: The pH of DFS was acidic. The time gap between the additions of acid and potassium iodide (KI) played a crucial role in getting the actual iodine content of DFS. The H(2)SO(4) and ferrous sulphate (FeSO(4)) interfered with the estimation of iodine in DFS resulting in underestimation or overestimation of iodine. Modified method (H(3)PO(4)) produced consistent and reliable iodine content of DFS. Both H(2)SO(4) and H(3)PO(4) gave same results when tested with KIO(3) standard, Reference salt and IS (both experimental and purchased from local market). Actually 0.50 ml of 1 per cent KI was sufficient to estimate the iodine content of DFS or IS. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: The results of the present study showed that the conventional method using H(2)SO(4) was not suitable for the estimation of iodine in DFS. The modified method using H(2)PO(4) was ideally suited for the estimation of iodine in DFS. Also, iron from DFS did not interfere during estimation of iodine by this method. As both the conventional and the modified methods gave the same results for the iodine content of IS, it is practically prudent to use the modified method (H(2)PO(4)) for both DFS and IS instead of following one method (H(3)PO(4)) for DFS and another (H(2)SO(4)) for IS. The quantity of KI is also reduced and the order of additions of reagents is changed in the modified procedure.
Anemia, Iron-Deficiency↗
[Iodine nutritional status and risk factors for iodine deficiency in infants and children of the french North department].
INTRODUCTION: Iodine deficiency is responsible for a higher mortality and morbidity in neonates and infants. It has not yet disappeared in European countries, especially in Southern and Eastern Europe. OBJECTIVES: The present study aimed at evaluating the status of iodine nutrition of infants living in the North department (France) and at studying risk factors for iodine deficiency. METHODS: The study was conducted in primary health care centres in 160 healthy infants aged ten days to six years (mean +/- SD: 17.7 +/- 2.5 months). Data included: familial thyroid disease history, type of feeding at inclusion, timing of introduction of complementary foods, nutritional status (weight, height, head and arm circumference), as well as maternal education level and family socio-economical status. Iodine status was assessed by urinary iodine excretion. RESULTS: Urinary iodine concentration ranged from 4 to 1042 microg/l (median +/- SD: 195,5 +/- 21,6 microg/l). Thirty-eight (24%) of 160 children were iodine deficient (urinary iodine < 100 microg/l): mild iodine deficiency (50-99 microg/l: 17%), moderate iodine deficiency (20-49 microg/l: 5%), severe iodine deficiency (<20 microg/l: 2%). No relationship was found between iodine status and age, sex, geographic origin of the children, as well as social and occupational group of the parents. Breast-feeding did not prevent from iodine deficiency. Iodine status did not differ between the cow's milk fed group and the group that was not fed cow's milk. Formula feeding was associated with iodine deficiency (p = 0,02). CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of severe iodine deficiency was very low in this population. However, iodine status was not optimal.
Child↗