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PubMed2006

Controlled delivery of high vs low humidity vs mist therapy for croup in emergency departments: a randomized controlled trial.

CONTEXT: Children with croup are often treated with humidity even though this is not scientifically based, consumes time, and can be harmful. Although humidity using the traditional blow-by technique is similar to room air and no water droplets reach the nasopharynx, particles sized for laryngeal deposition (5-10 microm) could be beneficial. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a significant difference in the clinical Westley croup score exists in children with moderate to severe croup who were admitted to the emergency department and who received either 100% humidity or 40% humidity via nebulizer or blow-by humidity. DESIGN AND SETTING: A randomized, single-blind, controlled trial conducted between 2001 and 2004 in a tertiary care pediatric emergency department. PARTICIPANTS: A convenience sample of 140 previously healthy children 3 months to 10 years of age with Westley croup score of more than 1 or 2 or higher (scoring system range, 0-17); 21 families refused participation. INTERVENTION: Thirty-minute administration of humidity using traditional blow-by technique (commonly used placebo, n = 48), controlled delivery of 40% humidity (optimally delivered placebo, n = 46), or 100% humidity (n = 46) with water particles of mass median diameter 6.21 microm. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: A priori defined change in the Westley croup score from baseline to 30 and 60 minutes in the 3 groups. RESULTS: Groups were comparable before treatment. At 30 minutes the difference in the improvement in the croup score between the blow-by and low-humidity groups was 0.03 (95% confidence interval [CI], -0.72 to 0.66), between low- and high-humidity groups, 0.16 (95% CI, -0.86 to 0.53), and between blow-by and high-humidity groups, 0.19 (95% CI, -0.87 to 0.49). Results were similar at 60 minutes. Differences between groups in pulse and respiratory rates and oxygen saturation changes were insignificant, as were proportions of excellent responders; proportions with croup score of 0 at study conclusion; and proportions receiving dexamethasone, epinephrine, or requiring additional medical care or hospitalization. CONCLUSIONS: One hundred percent humidity with particles specifically sized to deposit in the larynx failed to result in greater improvement than 40% humidity or humidity by blow-by technique. This study does not support the use of humidity for moderate croup for patients treated in the emergency department. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00230841.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed1996

Relationship between the humidity and temperature of inspired gas and the function of the airway mucosa.

OBJECTIVE: To review the available literature on the relationship between the humidity and temperature of inspired gas and airway mucosal function. DATA SOURCES: International computerized databases and published indices, experts in the field, conference proceedings, bibliographies. STUDY SELECTION/DATA EXTRACTION: Two hundred articles/texts on respiratory tract physiology and humidification were reviewed. Seventeen articles were selected from 40 articles for inclusion in the published data verification of the model. Selection was by independent reviewers. Extraction was by consensus, and was based on finding sufficient data. DATA SYNTHESIS: A relationship exists between inspired gas humidity and temperature, exposure time to a given humidity level, and mucosal function. This relationship can be modeled and represented as an inspired humidity magnitude vs. exposure time map. The model is predictive of mucosal function and can be partially verified by the available literature. It predicts that if inspired humidity deviates from an optimal level, a progressive mucosal dysfunction begins. The greater the humidity deviation, the faster the mucosal dysfunction progresses. CONCLUSIONS: A model for the relationship between airway mucosal dysfunction and the combination of the humidity of inspired gas and the duration over which the airway mucosa is exposed to that humidity is proposed. This model suggests that there is an optimal temperature and humidity above which, and below which, there is impaired mucosal function. This optimal level of temperature and humidity is core temperature and 100% relative humidity. However, existing data are only sufficient to test this model for gas conditions below core temperature and 100% relative humidity. These data concur with the model in that region. No studies have yet looked at this relationship beyond 24 hrs. Longer exposure times to any given level of inspired humidity and inspired gas temperatures and humidities above core temperature and 100% relative humidity need to be studied to fully verify the proposed model.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Pulmonary responses of asthmatic and normal subjects to different temperature and humidity conditions in an environmental chamber.

Determining the possible adverse health effects of air pollutants can be complicated by differences in the environmental conditions of temperature and humidity. To evaluate the potentially confounding effects of differences in temperature and humidity, we exposed 8 normal male subjects and 8 male subjects with asthma to the extremes in temperature and humidity that could be maintained in an environmental chamber. We performed serial pulmonary function tests for these subjects before and during 6 hr exposure periods on 5 separate occasions: cold, dry (10 degrees C, 10% relative humidity); cold, humid (10 degrees C, 50% relative humidity); normal ambient (22 degrees C, 40% relative humidity); hot, dry (37 degrees C, 15% relative humidity); and hot, humid (37 degrees C, 60% relative humidity). The exposure period included a 12 min exercise on a cycle ergometer. We found no significant change in spirometry, airways resistance, or diffusing capacity for either group of subjects at rest alone over the 6 hr period of exposure for any exposure condition. However, there were changes in spirometry and airways resistance as a result of the 12 min period of exercise. The subjects with asthma had significant decreases in forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (FEV1) (20-21%) and increases in specific airways resistance when exercising in conditions of cold and dry, cold and humid, and hot and dry. The normal subjects had an average increase in FEV1 of approximately 6% when exercising in the hot and humid conditions. We found significant correlations for the changes in FEV1 with the water content of the exposure conditions for both groups of subjects. We also found that the work performance (expressed as the external work performed divided by the oxygen consumed) was decreased for the subjects in both groups at the conditions of the higher temperature (37 degrees C) compared with the lower temperature (10 degrees C). These results confirm that controlling for the conditions of temperature and humidity is essential in chamber studies, field studies, or epidemiologic evaluations determining the adverse effect of an air pollutant.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Low rates of change enhance effect of humidity on the activity of insect hygroreceptors.

The inability to measure humidity during stimulation has so far prevented us from understanding the contribution of moist cells and dry cells to orientation in a gradient of humidity. The problem was solved in the present study by means of a UV-absorption hygrometer that made it possible to monitor humidity at a rate of 100 Hz. The antennal moist and dry cells of the cockroach were exposed to humidities alternatively falling or rising at low rates between -1% RH s(-1) and +1% RH s(-1) (relative humidity). Impulse frequency of both types of cells depended simultaneously on instantaneous humidity and its rate of change. High frequencies of the moist cells signal high humidity. But at a given humidity, the response frequency is higher still when humidity is also rising. Conversely, high frequencies of the dry cell signal low humidity, and frequency is higher still at a given humidity when humidity is also falling. These responses ensure that the cockroach spent a minimum time in environments where desiccation or hydration occur and may thus protect the animal from emerging accidentally from under cover into moving air. In the constant-humidity retreat of the cockroach, fluctuating or even drifting discharge frequencies could serve as an early warning: return!

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Inspired gas humidity during mechanical ventilation: effects of humidification chamber, airway temperature probe position and environmental conditions.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the inspired gas humidity during mechanical ventilation with: (i) four different humidification chambers; (ii) two airway temperature probe (ATP) positions; (iii) five different humidicrib temperatures; and (iv) insulating the inspiratory limb with bubble wrap. METHODOLOGY: An observational study in the Neonatal Laboratory and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Westmead Hospital. The humidity of the inspired gas was measured at the proximal end of the endotracheal tube (ETT) during mechanical ventilation. Inspired humidity measurements were made with four different humidification chambers (Fisher & Paykel (F&P Healthcare Pty Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand) auto refill MR290. F&P manual refill MR310, Suruga (Suruga Inc. Humidifiers, Vincent Medical, Dongguan, China) manual refill MI-20 and MI-10F) with the humidity control (relative humidity setting) set at - 2. Measurements were made with the ATP positioned either; (A) at the distal end of the inspiratory tube inside the humidicrib or (B) outside the humidicrib 50 cm proximal to the ETT. The inspired gas temperatures were set at 36.5 degrees C and at 39.0 degrees C, respectively. For each of the different humidification chambers and ATP positions, inspired humidity measurements were made with the humidicrib temperature set at 30.8, 32.9, 35.2, 36.2, or 37.2 degrees C. Two further sets of measurements were made, one with the inspiratory limb insulated with bubble wrap and the second set without bubble wrap. RESULTS: There were significant differences in inspired humidity with the four humidification chambers at both ATP positions at all humidicrib temperatures. Both Suruga humidification chambers produced significantly higher inspired gas humidities under most conditions. Positioning the ATP outside the humidicrib produced significantly higher inspired gas humidities than with the ATP inside the humidicrib. Insulating the inspiratory tubing with bubble wrap also significantly improved the inspired gas humidity. CONCLUSIONS: Significant differences in inspired gas humidity were found with the humidification chambers tested. The position of the ATP and the set temperature had a significant impact on the absolute humidity of the inspired gas. In general, higher inspired gas humidities were obtained with the ATP outside the humidicrib. However, condensation of water close to the ETT appeared at low humidicrib temperatures (< 36.2 degrees C) with the ATP outside the humidicrib and extreme care should be taken that particulate water does not enter the lungs under these conditions.

Environment, Controlled↗
PubMed1986

Indirect health effects of relative humidity in indoor environments.

A review of the health effects of relative humidity in indoor environments suggests that relative humidity can affect the incidence of respiratory infections and allergies. Experimental studies on airborne-transmitted infectious bacteria and viruses have shown that the survival or infectivity of these organisms is minimized by exposure to relative humidities between 40 and 70%. Nine epidemiological studies examined the relationship between the number of respiratory infections or absenteeism and the relative humidity of the office, residence, or school. The incidence of absenteeism or respiratory infections was found to be lower among people working or living in environments with mid-range versus low or high relative humidities. The indoor size of allergenic mite and fungal populations is directly dependent upon the relative humidity. Mite populations are minimized when the relative humidity is below 50% and reach a maximum size at 80% relative humidity. Most species of fungi cannot grow unless the relative humidity exceeds 60%. Relative humidity also affects the rate of offgassing of formaldehyde from indoor building materials, the rate of formation of acids and salts from sulfur and nitrogen dioxide, and the rate of formation of ozone. The influence of relative humidity on the abundance of allergens, pathogens, and noxious chemicals suggests that indoor relative humidity levels should be considered as a factor of indoor air quality. The majority of adverse health effects caused by relative humidity would be minimized by maintaining indoor levels between 40 and 60%. This would require humidification during winter in areas with cold winter climates. Humidification should preferably use evaporative or steam humidifiers, as cool mist humidifiers can disseminate aerosols contaminated with allergens.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1994

Preservation of humidity and heat of respiratory gases in patients with a minute ventilation greater than 10 L/min.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the temperature and humidification output of one heated humidifier system (Bennett Cascade 2 Humidifier) and two heat and moisture exchangers (Pall Ultipor, BB 50, and Humid-Vent Filter) in intensive care unit (ICU) patients submitted to a minute ventilation of > 10 L/min. DESIGN: Prospective, controlled, randomized, unblinded study. SETTING: ICU of a university hospital. PATIENTS: Eleven sedated and paralyzed patients who required controlled mechanical ventilation with a minute ventilation of > 10 L/min for > 3 days. INTERVENTIONS: After a randomized selection process, the patients were ventilated for 24-hr periods with the humidifier and one of the heat and moisture exchangers. Both heat and moisture exchangers were first tested for 45 mins; then, the heat and moisture exchanger that demonstrated the best performance in terms of temperature and water preservation was tested for 24 hrs. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: During the inspiration phase for each patient, the following measurements were performed: mean and minimum values of temperature, relative and absolute humidity of inspired gases. During the 45-min test period, the Humid-Vent Filter had a better temperature and humidification output than the Pall Ultipor Filter and thus was tested for 24 hrs. The Bennett Cascade 2 Humidifier and the Humid-Vent Filter had a better thermic capacity than the Pall Ultipor Filter (p < .001). No difference was ever observed between the Bennett Cascade 2 Humidifier and the Humid-Vent Filter regarding relative humidity. The Pall Ultipor Filter had a lower temperature and humidification output when compared with the other two systems (p < .007). Concerning absolute humidity of inspired gases, the Pall Ultipor Filter achieved a lower performance than any other tested systems (p < .02). A small but significant decrease in temperature and absolute humidity, but not in relative humidity, was seen after 24 hrs of use with the Humid-Vent Filter. However, with this heat and moisture exchanger, all patients had an absolute humidity of > 28 mg H2O/L and a relative humidity of > 93% after 24 hrs of use. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with a minute ventilation of > 10 L/min (> 10.5 to 16.0 L/min), the Humid-Vent Filter had a temperature and humidification output close to the reference system (the Bennett Cascade 2 Humidifier). The Pall Ultipor Filter had a significantly lower temperature and humidification output in these patients.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2003

Significance of humidity and temperature on skin and upper airway symptoms.

The objective of the present study was to assess the effect of absolute and relative humidity, temperature and humidification on workers' skin and upper airway symptoms, and perceptions in the office environment. Associations between physical factors, and symptoms and perceptions were assessed in logistic regression models. At temperatures between 18 and 26 degrees C, relative humidity of 17-40%, and absolute humidity of 3.3-5.6 g H2O/kg air, skin symptoms and nasal dryness and congestion were alleviated by both kinds of humidity. Pharyngeal dryness increased when temperatures rose and was alleviated with a rise in relative humidity. Eye symptoms showed no dependence on humidity. Any kind of humidity increased odor sensation. Stuffiness increased when the air was humidified. In non-humidified conditions (21.3-22.7 degrees C, 20.0-31.7%, 3.3-5.6 g H2O/kg air), skin and nasal symptoms showed no association with humidity or temperature. Pharyngeal dryness diminished when humidity rose. In addition, the association between humidity and odor disappeared. In humidified conditions (21.5-23.7 degrees C, 26.6-41.2%, 4.2-7.0 g H2O/kg air), nasal dryness and congestion were alleviated by both absolute and relative humidity, and odor perception increased. Skin dryness and rash, pharyngeal dryness, and nasal dryness and congestion are alleviated in higher humidity. Steam humidification results in a risk for increased perception of odor and stuffiness.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMed1999

Effect of ambient temperature and humidity on pulmonary artery temperature of exercising horses.

Six healthy Thoroughbred mares were trained to run on a high-speed treadmill and were conditioned for approximately 5 weeks. Each horse performed 6 identical standardised exercise tests (SET) 5 to 7 days apart. Each SET was performed under different ambient laboratory conditions: low temperature/low humidity (LL) 20.2 degrees +/- 0.6 degree C, 53.6 +/- 4.1%; low temperature/high humidity (LH) 19.7 +/- 0.6 degrees C, 86.7 +/- 4.2%; medium temperature/low humidity (ML) 24.6 +/- 0.2 degrees C, 58.7 +/- 3.7%; medium temperature/high humidity (MH) 24.7 +/- 0.3 degrees C, 87.5 +/- 1.4%; high temperature/low humidity (HL) 31.1 +/- 0.6 degrees C, 41.6 +/- 3.5%; and high temperature/high humidity (HH) 30.6 +/- 0.2 degrees C, 84.4 +/- 3.6%. Horses completed the 46 min SET, became fatigued or exercise was terminated when a pulmonary artery temperature (PAT) of 41.5 degrees C was reached. During a 30 min recovery period, horses stood quietly on the treadmill. Only one trial was terminated due to fatigue; in all other trials horses completed the 46 min SET or the trial was terminated when PAT = 41.5 degrees C. The relationships among run time (min) or PAT (degree C), ambient temperature and % relative humidity were defined by multiple linear regression analysis. Run time (min) = 90.9 - (1.39 x ambient temperature degree C) - (0.236 x relative humidity %). Approximately 54% of the variation in run times was explained by variation in environmental conditions, indicating that ambient temperature and humidity contribute substantially to the rate of rise in PAT. Run times to a PAT of 41.5 degrees C were significantly shorter (P < 0.000001) in HH than in other groups during the SET. Approximately 63% of the variation in PAT at the end of exercise was due to ambient temperature and humidity. In general, the longer the exercise time, the better the correlation among PAT, ambient temperature and relative humidity. Rectal temperature increased significantly (P < 0.0001) during the recovery period only in horses in the HH group, indicating that heat dissipation during recovery may have been impaired by environmental conditions. This study demonstrates that hot humid conditions result in more rapid rate of rise in PAT for horses undertaking identical exercise tests.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

[The temperature-humidity profile of the PhysioFlex. Studies on a model].

UNLABELLED: Closed-system anaesthesia provides the best prerequisites for optimal warming and humidification of anaesthetic gases. The PhysioFlex anaesthesia machine fascilitates quantitative closed-system anaesthesia. Furthermore, its design may improve the climatization of the anaesthetic gases by revolving the system volume at 70 l/min, using a small soda-lime canister to allow optimal usage of the heat and moisture generated by CO2 absorption and by integrating all system components in thermally isolating housing. To determine the capacity of the PhysioFlex to climatize anaesthetic gases, we evaluated the heat and humidity profile at four characteristic places in the anaesthetic circuit under standardised conditions in a model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In an air-conditioned room at 19-20 degrees C ambient temperature, the PhysioFlex was operated with a fresh gas flow of less than 500 ml/min, similar to quantitative closed-system anaesthesia in adults. With a respiratory rate of 10/min and a tidal volume of 600 ml, a humidifier was ventilated, that delivered humidity-saturated gas at 33-34 degrees C; 200 ml/min CO2 were added to the system at the humidifier to mimic the heat, moisture, and CO2 input of a patient into the anaesthetic circuit. A total of six series were performed, each starting with a cold and dry anaesthetic circuit. For 2 h the time-courses of temperature and humidity of the anaesthetic gases were measured at four distinct places: (1) in the soda-lime canister (M1); (2) at the outlet of the anaesthesia machine (M2); (3) at the inlet of the anaesthesia machine (M3); and (4) in the inspiratory limb close to the Y-piece (M4). Capacitive humidity sensors (VAISALA Type HMM 30 D without a protective cap) and very small thermocouples were used to measure relative humidity (rH) and temperature. The data were recorded at 5 min intervals. Due to the continuous gas stream in the system, the response time of the sensors, which is in the range of a few seconds, did not affect the accuracy of the measurement. With the temperature-dependent humidity content of 100% rH obtained from equation 1, absolute humidity was calculated. RESULTS: The time courses of temperature and humidity at the different measuring points are depicted in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. The steepest increase in temperature and humidity was observed at M1. Within 10 min 100% rH was achieved at all measuring points. Initially, there was a considerable temperature gradient between M1 and M2; this became gradually smaller, indicating system components with high heat capacities. There was only a small gradient between M2 and M4, indicating that there was only a small heat loss compared to the heat input. The recommended minimal climatization of the anaesthetic gases of 20 mg H2O/l [20] was obtained within 10 min at M4. During the whole measuring period heat and humidity increased in the system, reaching a maximum at M4 after 120 min with average values of more than 28 degrees C and 27 mg H2O/l, respectively. CONCLUSION: With the PhysioFlex anaesthesia machine employing closed-system conditions, minimal climatization of anaesthetic gases was reached within 10 min. After a period of 120 min, the anaesthetic gases were nearly climatized to the extent recommended for long-term respiratory therapy. To date, no comparable temperature and humidity level has been reported with conventional anaesthesia machines. The time course of the gradient between M1 and M2 may give an opportunity for further optimising the system in reducing heat loss after the soda-lime canister, the active heat and moisture source in the circuit. At about 32 degrees C, the temperature in the soda-lime canister is 10-15 degrees C less than in conventional anaesthesia machines. Thus, the use of thermally instable volatile anaesthetics in the PhysioFlex under closed-system conditions may be less critical than in conventional anaesthesia machines under minimal-flow conditions.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Humidity influences exercise capacity in subjects with exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB).

RATIONALE: Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) increases in cold and dry air and decreases in humid air in subjects with asthma. Few reports have reported on the effect of humid environment upon exercise capacity in subjects with EIB. OBJECTIVE: The primary aim of the present study was to examine the effect of changing the humidity of the environmental air upon exercise capacity measured by peak oxygen uptake (V O2 peak), peak ventilation (V Epeak) and peak running speed (V peak) and secondarily to assess the influence of environmental humidity upon EIB in subjects suffering from EIB. METHODS: Twenty subjects (10-45 years old, male/female:13/7) with diagnosed EIB performed exercise testing under standardised, regular environmental conditions, 20.2 degrees C (+/- 1.1) and 40% (+/- 3.3) relative humidity [mean (+/- SD)], and under standardised humid environmental conditions; 19.9 degrees C (+/- 1.0) and 95% (+/- 1.7) relative humidity in random order on separate days. Lung function was measured before and 1, 3, 6, 10 and 15 min after exercise. Heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (V O2), respiratory gas exchange ratio (RER), breathing frequency (BF) and minute ventilation (V E) were measured during exercise. RESULTS: V O2 peak and V peak increased significantly from 40% to 95% relative humidity of the environmental air, 4.5% and 5.9%, respectively (P = 0.001). HRpeak increased significantly in the humid environment, while BF(peak) decreased significantly. RERpeak and V Epeak did not change significantly. Post-exercise reduction in FEV1 (DeltaFEV1) and FEF50 (forced expiratory flow at 50% of FVC) (DeltaFEF50) significantly decreased after exercise in a humid environment as compared to regular conditions, DeltaFEV1: 12% (7,17) vs. 24% (19,29) [mean (95% confidence intervals)], respectively, DeltaFEF50: 20% (12,29) vs. 38% (30,46), respectively (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Exercise capacity (V O2 peak and V peak) markedly improved during exercise in humid air in subjects with EIB, whereas EIB was reduced to the half.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Direct measurements of temperature and humidity in dust mite microhabitats.

BACKGROUND: Up to 70% of atopic asthmatics have a positive skin test to the dust mite allergen Der p 1. Reduction of dust mite numbers by lowering room humidity control is one suggested technique for reducing dust mite allergen levels to clinically acceptable levels. Trials of this technique in temperate climates have reported mixed results. It has been speculated that one reason for this is that humidity changes in room ambient air are not tightly linked to humidity changes in the dust mite microenvironment (in the base of carpets, bedding, furniture etc.). OBJECTIVE: To directly measure humidities and temperatures in dust mite microenvironments and compare these to ambient conditions, and so gather data on how the microclimates are influenced by room conditions and moisture and heat sources, such as an occupant in a bed. METHODS: A special small humidity device has been developed which can discriminate humidity changes over distances of millimetres. With these devices microclimates have been measured in the base of carpets, in layers through bedding, and in furniture. RESULTS: Measured base-of-carpet humidities were significantly higher than room humidities. Bedding relative humidities show complex behaviour according to the distance separation between the measuring point and the occupant. Immediately below the occupant, bed relative humidities fall when the person enters the bed. Similar behaviour is observed in a sofa. CONCLUSION: Some dust mite microclimates have been shown to be very different from room conditions. Consequently, reduction of dust mite numbers and allergen levels cannot be guaranteed by the controlling of room humidities.

Allergens↗
PubMed2001

Effect of air temperature and humidity on the survival of pre-imaginal stages of two flea species (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae).

The survival of immatture fleas at 25 and 28 degrees C and 40, 55, 75, and 92% RH was studied to test the hypothesis that the difference in microclimatic preferences determines habitat distribution of Xenopsylla conformis Wagner, 1903 and Xenopsylla ramesis Rothschild, 1904. Survival of X. conformis eggs did not depend on either temperature or humidity or both, whereas eggs of X. ramesis survived significantly less at 40% RH than at higher humidities. No larva of either species survived at 40% RH at either temperature. Larval survival of both species at both temperature regimes was significantly lower at 55% humidity than at higher humidities. Maximal survival time of larvae that died before pupation depended on both temperature and humidity in both species. Change of humidity during early stages of the life cycle (from egg to larva) increased the maximal survival time in X. conformis larvae but decreased that in X. ramesis larvae. Pupal survival was higher at higher humidities independent of temperature. Survival of X. conformis pupae was lower than that of X. ramesis pupae when the relative humidity was low. Humidity change on later stages (from larva to cocoon) decreased X. conformis pupal survival and had no effect on X. ramesis pupal survival. The sex ratio of emerged adults was not affected by either temperature or humidity in both species. Changes in humidity between egg and larval emvironments significantly decreased the percentage of females in X. conformis emergence at 28 degrees C.

Air↗