[Comparative study on the biological activity and toxicity of the rhizome of ginseng, whole ginseng and the main root of ginseng].
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Isolation of a ribonuclease from sanchi ginseng (Panax pseudoginseng) flowers distinct from other ginseng ribonucleases.
A single-chained ribonuclease was isolated from the aqueous extract of sanchi ginseng (Panax pseudoginseng) flowers. It exhibited a molecular mass of 23 kDa, an N-terminal sequence with some similarity to other enzymes involved in RNA metabolism but different from known ribonucleases, and considerably higher activity toward poly U than poly C and only slight activity toward poly A and poly G. The purification protocol entailed ion exchange chromatography on diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-cellulose, affinity chromatography on Affi-gel blue gel, ion exchange chromatography on carboxymethyl (CM)-cellulose, and gel filtration on Superdex 75. The ribonuclease was unadsorbed on DEAE-cellulose and adsorbed on Affi-gel blue gel and CM-cellulose. Maximal activity of the ribonuclease was attained at pH 7. On either side of this pH the enzyme activity underwent a drastic decline. The enzyme activity was at its highest at 50 degrees C and dropped to about 20% of the maximal activity when the temperature was decreased to 20 degrees C or elevated to 80 degrees C. The characteristics of sanchi ginseng flower ribonuclease were different from those of the ribonucleases previously purified from sanchi ginseng and Chinese ginseng roots including ribonuclease from Chinese ginseng flowers which are morphologically very similar to sanchi ginseng flowers.
Amino Acid Sequence↗
Proteomic analysis of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer).
Although many reports have been published regarding the pharmacological effects of ginseng, little is known about the biochemical pathways operant in ginsenoside biosynthesis, or the genes involved therein. Proteomics analysis is an approach to elucidate the physiological characteristics and biosynthetic pathways of ginsenosides, main components of ginseng. In this review, we introduced the recent progress in proteomics studies of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer). We briefly reference the genomic analyses of P. ginseng, without which proteomics approaches would have been impossible. Functional genomics studies regarding secondary metabolism in P. ginseng are also introduced here, in order to introduce possible future prospects for further study.
Databases, Genetic↗
Differentiation and authentication of Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, and ginseng products by using HPLC/MS.
An LC/MS-based method is established for the differentiation and authentication of specimens and commercial samples of Panax ginseng (Oriental ginseng) and Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng). This method is based on the separation of ginsenosides present in the ginseng methanolic extracts using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), followed by detection with electrospray mass spectrometry. Differentiation of ginsenosides is achieved through simultaneous detection of intact ginsenoside molecular ions and the ions of their characteristic thermal degradation products. An important parameter used for differentiating P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius is the presence of ginsenoside Rf and 24-(R)-pseudoginsenoside F11 in the RICs of Oriental and American ginsengs, respectively. It is important to stress that ginsenoside Rf and 24(R)-pseudoginsenoside F11, which possess the same molecular weight and were found to have similar retention times under most LC conditions, can be unambiguously distinguished in the present HPLC/MS method. The method developed is robust, reliable, reproducible, and highly sensitive down to the nanogram level.
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
Proof of the mysterious efficacy of ginseng: basic and clinical trials: suppression of adrenal medullary function in vitro by ginseng.
The root of Panax ginseng C.A. MEYER has been reported to have an anti-stress action. Therefore, the effects of ginseng components on functions of adrenal medulla, which is one of the most important organs responsive to stress, were investigated in vitro. First, the components of ginseng were mainly divided into two fractions, that is, the saponin-rich and non-saponin fractions. The saponin-rich fraction greatly reduced the secretion of catecholamines from bovine adrenal chromaffin cells stimulated by acetylcholine (ACh), whereas the non-saponin fraction did not affect it at all. The protopanaxatriol-type saponins inhibited the ACh-evoked secretion much more strongly than the protopanaxadiol-type. On the other hand, the oleanane-type saponin, ginsenoside-Ro, had no such effect. Recent reports have demonstrated that the saponins in ginseng are metabolized and absorbed in digestive tracts following oral administration of ginseng. All of the saponin metabolites greatly reduced the ACh-evoked secretion. M4 was the most effective inhibitor among the metabolites. M4 blocked ACh-induced Na(+) influx and ion inward current into the chromaffin cells and into the Xenopus oocytes expressing human alpha3beta4 nicotinic ACh receptors, respectively, suggesting that the saponin metabolites modulate nicotinic ACh receptors followed by the reduction of catecholamine secretion. It is highly possible that these effects of ginsenosides and their metabolites are associated with the anti-stress action of ginseng.
Adrenal Medulla↗
[Systemic breeding of the new variety of Biantiao ginseng (Panax ginseng)].
OBJECTIVE: To breed new varieties of Biantiao ginseng for high yield and fine quality. METHODS: Systemic breeding methods were applied. About 3,000 outstanding Biantiao ginseng roots were selected and planted in breeding field, and self-crossed for four generations. During the course, inferior lines or plants were rejected. Then strain comparison, identification of resistance to black-speck disease, and analysis of active compositions were carried out. RESULTS: "Biantiao 1" (BT1), the first new variety of Biantiao ginseng, with green stems and thick, long, elegant roots and median resistance to black-speck disease, has been harvested since 20 years. The percentage of Biantiao ginseng roots and yield were 15% and 30% higher than the control's respectively. The content of total ginsenosides and the main monomers was 1.8%-2.5% higher than the control's. The characteristics of overground part and root of BT1 were uniform and stable. CONCLUSIONS: BT1, a new excellent ginseng variety, has a good potential value to be generalized in ginseng production.
Breeding↗
Determination of ginsenosides (ginseng saponins) in dry root powder from Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, and selected commercial products by liquid chromatography: interlaboratory study.
Twelve collaborating laboratories assayed 4 products, namely, Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, and 2 ginseng products, for 6 ginsenosides: Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, and Rg1. Collaborators also received a negative control for the recovery study. Pure ginsenosides were provided as reference standards for the liquid chromatography (LC) analysis and the system suitability tests. The LC analyses were performed on the methanol extract using UV detection at 203 nm. For P. ginseng, individual ginsenosides were consistent in their means; repeatability standard deviations (RSDr) ranged from 4.17 to 5.09% and reproducibility standard deviations (RSDR) ranged from 7.27 to 11.3%. For P. quinquefolius, the Rb1 and Rb2 ginsenosides were higher and lower in concentration than P. ginseng, with RSDr values of 3.44 and 6.60% and RSDR values of 5.91 and 12.6% respectively, and other analytes at intermediate precisions. For ginseng commercial products, RSDr values ranged from 3.39 to 8.12%, and RSDR values ranged from 7.65 to 16.5%. A recovery study was also conducted for 3 ginsenosides: Rg1, Re, and Rb1. The average recoveries were 99.9, 96.2, and 92.3%, respectively. The method is not applicable for the determination of Rg1 and Re in ginseng product at levels <300 mg/kg.
Carbohydrate Sequence↗
The physical map of the chloroplast DNA from Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer).
To compare the gene order of the chloroplast genome among dicotyledonous plants, we constructed a physical map of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) with four restriction enzymes, BamHI, HindIII, EcoRI, and PstI. The restriction enzyme recognition sites of the physical map were also confirmed by Southern hybridization of total ginseng cpDNA with homologous and heterologous probes. The cpDNA of Korean ginseng was determined as a circular molecule with a total size of about 154 kb, which contain two inverted repeats of 23 kb each that disrupt the rest of the molecule into a large (90 kb) and a small single copy region (18 kb). The genome structure of Korean ginseng cpDNA was similar in size and gene order to that of tobacco cpDNA. The cpDNA of Korean and American ginseng (P. quinquefolius) showed very similar restriction patterns.
Chromosome Mapping↗
Dissecting the anti-obesity components of ginseng: How ginseng polysaccharides and ginsenosides target gut microbiota to suppress high-fat diet-induced obesity.
INTRODUCTION: Ginseng demonstrates therapeutic potential in treating obesity, with both experimental and clinical studies suggesting its anti-obesity effects are mediated by gut microbiota. Nonetheless, the specific chemical components responsible for this effect remain largely unidentified. OBJECTIVES: This study aims to investigate the anti-obesity effects and mechanisms of ginseng polysaccharides (GP) and ginsenosides (GS), the primary chemical components of ginseng, with a focus on their impact on gut microbiota. METHODS: The impact of GP and GS on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity was assessed using a mouse model. Molecular mechanisms were explored through a combination of chemical analysis, metagenomics, RT-qPCR, ELISA, and biochemical assays. RESULTS: GP or GS administration effectively prevented adiposity in HFD-fed mice, and both effects were mediated by gut microbiota. Chemical analysis revealed diverse glycosyl groups in GP and GS. Metagenomics data suggested that GP-enriched species, e.g., Bacteroides stercorirosoris and Clostridiales bacterium encoded carbohydrate-active enzymes GH35, GH43 and PL9_1, while GS-enriched Sulfurospirillum halorespirans encoded GH16_5. These enzymes facilitated the utilization of glycosyl groups in GP and GS, selectively stimulating bacterial growth and reshaping the gut microbiota. Furthermore, bacterial species enriched by GP or GS encoded specific functional genes involved in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) synthesis (K00625 and K00925 for GP; K18118, K00100, and K18122 for GS) and intestinal gluconeogenesis (IGN) (K01678, K00024, and K01596 for GP; K18118 and K00278 for GS). Consequently, the SCFA-GLP-1/PYY signaling and IGN were activated by both GP and GS to ameliorate obesity phenotypes. CONCLUSION: GP and GS, containing diverse glycosyl groups, selectively stimulate specific gut bacteria, triggering mechanisms involved in SCFA-GLP-1/PYY signaling and IGN activation to reduce adiposity in HFD-fed mice. The study enhances understanding of the chemical components crucial for the gut microbiota-mediated anti-obesity effect of ginseng. The mechanistic understanding provides valuable insights for developing ginseng-based drugs or health products to combat obesity.
Gastrointestinal Microbiome↗
Acyl-CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase inhibitory activity of ginseng sapogenins, produced from the ginseng saponins.
Ginseng sapogenins were produced from ginseng saponins, isolated from Korean ginseng roots. Ginseng saponins very mildly inhibited acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) in vitro, however, the sapogenins showed strong inhibitory activity on microsomal ACAT. Therefore, the sapogenins will be one of key ingredients of ginseng affected a lowering of the serum total cholesterol level.
Animals↗
[Chemical fluctuation of the constituents during the drying of Ginseng radix and Ginseng radix Rubra. Crude drug processing by far-infrared treatment].
In order to evaluate the utility of far-infrared drying method for crude drugs, the efficiency in the drying process of Ginseng Radix and Ginseng Radix Rubra was examined. Furthermore, chemical fluctuation of the constituents of Ginseng Radix and Ginseng Radix Rubra, which may occur during their drying process, has been investigated by means of HPLC quantitative analysis for ginsenosides and malonyl-ginsenosides, and TLC qualitative analysis for lipophylic constituents. It has been found that the far-infrared drying method (oven temperature 45 degrees C) dried Ginseng Radix faster without reducing both ginsenosides and malonyl-ginsenosides in comparison with the conventional drying methods such as an air drying and a hot-air drying.
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
Determination of aglycones of ginsenosides in ginseng preparations sold in Sweden and in urine samples from Swedish athletes consuming ginseng.
Recently developed gas chromatographic and gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods were used to characterize 17 different commercial ginseng preparations sold in Sweden. The contents of total ginsenosides per capsule or per tablet varied from 2.1 to 13.3 mg. Unlike the other preparations, a red ginseng and three liquid ginseng preparations (after releasing the sugar moieties from ginsenosides) were shown also to contain significant amounts of 20-epimers of 20(S)-protopanaxadiol and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol as well as their corresponding 24,25-hydrated compounds. In addition to the genuine and artificial sapogenins mentioned above, two epimeric pairs of prosapogenines (ginsenoside Rg3 and 20(S)-Rg3, ginsenoside Rh1 and 20(R)-Rh1) were also found in the liquid formulations. These results suggest that hydrolysis, epimerization and hydration in the side-chain of the aglycone moiety of ginsenosides may occur in the liquid formulations under weak acidic conditions (pH 3.0-3.5 with 9-10% of alcohol at room temperature). The new method was also used to determine the aglycones of ginsenosides in urine samples from Swedish athletes stating that they had consumed ginseng preparations within 10 days before urine collection. Out of the 65 samples analysed, 60 were found to contain 20(S)-protopanaxatriol. The concentrations of 20(S)-protopanaxatriol ginsenosides varied from 2 to 35 ng ml-1 urine. This is the first demonstration of uptake of ginsenosides in humans after oral administration of ginseng preparations.
Ginsenosides↗
[Studies on influence of fungal elicitor on hairy root of Panax ginseng biosynthesis ginseng saponin and biomass].
OBJECTIVE: To study influence of fungal elicitors on the biomass and ginseng saponin biosynthesis of hairy roots of Panax ginseng (HRPG). METHOD: Fungal elicitors were extracted from Colletorichum lagnarinm, Phoma filtrate, Fusarium oxysponum, Asperillus niger and culture with HRPG. The total ginseng sponin and four kinds of monomeric sponins were analysed by UV-spectrophotometry and RP-HPLC. RESULT: Fungal elicitors coula not only can influence on HRPG biomass and total ginseng sponin, but also improve or decrease some monomeric sponin. The total ginseng sponin could be increased to 3.649% but Rg1 and Re could not be detected when A. niger elicitors wss 20 mg x L(-1) in the culture fluid. CONCLUSION: Fungal elicitor has specificity influence on secondary metabolite of HRPG. HRPG can biosynthesize specially active component by using specific fungal elicitor is used.
Aspergillus niger↗
[Effect of radix Ginseng-faeces Trogopterori combination on pharmacodynamics and effective chemical composition of radix Ginseng].
The experiments have shown that there is incompatibility on anti-stress because the action of Radix Ginseng alone is stronger than that of Radix Ginseng and Faeces Trogopterori combined, but there is little incompatibility on non-specific immune function when both are used. The analysis of chemical composition of Radix Ginseng has indicated that the acquired rate of total saponin from the semifinished products and Rg1 of Radix Ginseng is markedly increased when the two drugs are decocted together. The results suggest that the traditional theory is limited in holding that Radix ginseng and Faeces Trogopterori are incompatible with each other.
Animals↗
No ergogenic effects of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) during graded maximal aerobic exercise.
OBJECTIVE: To assess the effects of chronic supplementation with two different dosages of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer on physiologic and psychological responses during graded maximal aerobic exercise. DESIGN: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. SUBJECTS: Thirty-six healthy men consuming an otherwise supplement-free diet who maintained their usual activity level. INTERVENTION: A standardized P ginseng C.A. Meyer concentrate (G115) was added to the normal diet of study participants at a dosage level of either 200 or 400 mg/day, where 100 mg of the preparation is equivalent to 500 mg P gingseng root. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Submaximal and maximal aerobic exercise responses before and after an 8-week trial intervention. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Analysis of variance. RESULTS: Thirty-one subjects completed the study. Supplementation with ginseng had no effect on the following physiologic and psychological parameters: oxygen consumption (mL/kg per minute), respiratory exchange ratio, minute ventilation (L/min), blood lactic acid concentration (mmol/L), heart rate (beats/min), and perceived exertion (P > .05). CONCLUSIONS: Our data in healthy men do not offer support for claims that P ginseng C.A. Meyer is an ergogenic aid to improve submaximal and maximal aerobic exercise performance.
Adult↗
Interactions of ginseng extract, ginseng separated fractions, and some triterpenoid saponins with glucose transporters in sheep erythrocytes.
The effects of Panax ginseng extract, ginseng saponins, and some other triterpenoid saponins on glucose uptake were examined by using sheep erythrocytes. Initial rates of glucose transport were determined by measurements of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) uptake. From kinetic analysis apparent Km and Vmax values of facilitated glucose transport in sheep erythrocytes were calculated as 2.3 +/- 0.08 mM and 1.4 +/- 0.05 nmol/min/10(9) cells. The results showed that ginseng extract stimulated glucose uptake in sheep erythrocytes dose-dependently. Ginseng saponins, in general, also stimulated glucose transport. The maximum effect was observed at 1 microM of ginsenoside Rb1 showing an increase of 24 +/- 5% above basal activity. However, ginsenoside Rg3, chikusetsusaponin Ia, and glycyrrhetic acid induced significant inhibitory effects on glucose transport in sheep erythrocytes.
Animals↗
Hoelen (Poria Cocos Wolf) and ginseng (Panax Ginseng C. A. Meyer), the ingredients of a Chinese prescription DX-9386, individually promote hippocampal long-term potentiation in vivo.
DX-9386 is a traditional Chinese medicinal prescription consisting of ginseng (Panax Ginseng C. A. Meyer), polygala (Polygala Tenuifolia Willdenew), acorus (Acorus Gramineus Soland) and hoelen (Poria Cocos Wolf). We recently found that oral administration of the prescription at a dose of 500 mg/kg intensified the formation of long-term potentiation (LTP) in the dentoff gyrus of anesthetized rats. To evaluate the individual contribution of separate ingredients in DX-9386 towards the observed biological activity, we investigated their direct influence upon LTP formation in vivo. A single oral administration of hoelen and ginseng (250 and 500 mg/kg) significantly increased the spike amplitude evoked by a subthreshold tetanic stimulation at time intervals up to 30 min after tetanus. Only minor effects of polygala (500 mg/kg) and no influence of acorus up to 500 mg/kg were observed. No drugs affected the basal spike amplitude induced by a test stimulus. In addition, we ascertained that DX-9386 was also active at a dose of 250 mg/kg. Taken together, these results indicate that hoelen and ginseng are the active components of DX-9386 with regard to the enhancement of hippocampal LTP.
Action Potentials↗
[Pharmacological study on Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer. XV. Effects of 70% methanolic extract from red and white ginseng on the antitumor activity of mitomycin C].
The influence of various fractions and ginsenosides from the 70% methanolic extract (RMe) of Red Ginseng (a steamed and dried root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) on the cytocidal effect of mitomycin C (MMC) against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma was investigated in vitro. The AcOEt soluble portion (RMe-I) showed an increasing effect on the activities of lysosomal enzymes in the cultured tumor cells. RMe-I promoted the uptake of MMC into the tumor cells and enhanced the cytotoxicity of MMC against the cultured tumor cells. 20(S)-, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg3 and ginsenoside Rh2 isolated from RMe-I promoted the uptake of MMC into the tumor cells but ginsenosides from the n-BuOH soluble portion (RME-II) had no effect. Furthermore, the influence of RMe and the 70% methanolic extract (WMe) from White Ginseng (a dried root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) on the cytocidal effect of MMC was investigated in vivo. MMC combined with RMe showed stronger antitumor effects against the ascites form of mouse Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and rat ascites hepatoma AH 130 than MMC combined with WMe. The activities of lysosomal enzymes in tumor cells were also more increased in comparison with that combined MMC and WMe.
Animals↗