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PubMed2005

[Hands and feet of Simian primates: an attempt at morphological characterization].

The carpal height, the length of the metacarpus, the metatarsus, and of all the phalanges of 269 simians were measured, then for each specimen, converted to percentage taking the 3rd metacarpus as the reference unit. They were then compared despite differences between specimens. The average values were determined for the different species, subspecies or families. Mathematical ratios were established: height of the carpus divided by the 3rd metacarpus, carpus divided by the 1st metacarpus, 1st ray of the hand divided by the 2nd, 1st ray of the hand divided by the 1st ray of the foot. CONCERNING THE HAND: For little monkeys, the length of the carpus and the medial metacarpus were similar to those observed in humans. Colobinae exhibited a relatively short thumb column. The length of the thumb was slightly shorter for the platyrrhinii and cercopithecinae, especially macacus. Some hapalidae had a relatively longer thumb than humans. All of their medial fingers were longer than those observed in humans. The big monkeys had a smaller carpus and thumb column, sometimes much smaller than in humans, with a similar length for the metacarpi and the medial fingers, except for gibbons, whose medial fingers were longer. CONCERNING THE FOOT: The 1st ray in humans is nearly as long as the 2nd toe, the other toes being very short. The 1st ray of the hallux of all monkeys was always longer than the ray of the thumb, but shorter than the hallux of humans. The other metatarsi of little monkeys were similar to those in humans, except for the platyrrhinii which had a shorter 2nd metatarsus. The lateral toes, which were much longer than in humans, were very similar to fingers though slightly longer, except for platyrrhinii with much longer toes. The big monkeys had very short metatarsi and slightly smaller lateral toes than humans.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Earliest known Old World monkey skull.

Similarities of the skull are commonly used to support hypotheses of ancestor-descendant relationships between fossil and living ape genera, especially between the late Miocene apes Sivapithecus and Dryopithecus from Eurasia and the living orang-utan (Pongo) from Borneo and Sumatra. Yet determining whether craniofacial traits shared by extant and Miocene apes are primitive or derived is severely hampered by the rarity of well-preserved fossil crania, particularly of early members of their closest outgroup, the Old World monkeys (Cercopithecoidea). The discovery of a complete and undistorted skull of Victoriapithecus at middle Miocene deposits from Maboko Island, Kenya, provides evidence of intact cranial-vault and basicranial morphology, brain size and craniofacial hafting for a primate from between 32 and 7 million years ago. Victoriapithecus represents a branch of Old World monkey that is intermediate between extant cercopithecids (Colobinae and Cercopithecinae) and the common ancestor they shared with apes (Hominoidea). The skull preserves traits widely thought to be derived for extant and fossil members of a proposed Sivapithecus/Pongo clade, but which now appear to be primitive features of ancestral Old World higher primates in general.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

Evolution of primate oncornaviruses: An endogenous virus from langurs (Presbytis spp.) with related virogene sequences in other Old World monkeys.

Gene sequences related to a retrovirus (oncornavirus type D) isolated from a lung cell culture from spectacled langur (Presbytis obscurus) are found in multiple copies (20-40 per haploid genome) in langur cellular DNA; partially homologous virogene sequences are present in the DNA of related Old World monkey species. Primates thus contain gene sequences for at least two distinct classes of genetically transmitted oncornaviruses, the type C class (isolated from baboons) and the type D class described here. The langur virus is partially related to Mason-Pfizer monkey virus, a type D retrovirus isolated from rhesus monkeys. Nucleic acid hybridization studies suggest that Mason-Pfizer monkey virus, now infectious among primates, was derived from an endogenous virus of langurs or from another member of the primate sub-family Colobinae.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

Ancestral facial morphology of Old World higher primates.

Fossil remains of the cercopithecoid Victoria-pithecus recently recovered from middle Miocene deposits of Maboko Island (Kenya) provide evidence of the cranial anatomy of Old World monkeys prior to the evolutionary divergence of the extant subfamilies Colobinae and Cercopithecinae. Victoria-pithecus shares a suite of craniofacial features with the Oligocene catarrhine Aegyptopithecus and early Miocene hominoid Afropithecus. All three genera manifest supraorbital costae, anteriorly convergent temporal lines, the absence of a postglabellar fossa, a moderate to long snout, great facial height below the orbits, a deep cheek region, and anteriorly tapering premaxilla. The shared presence of these features in a catarrhine generally ancestral to apes and Old World monkeys, an early ape, and an early Old World monkey indicates that they are primitive characteristics that typified the last common ancestor of Hominoidea and Cercopithecoidea. These results contradict prevailing cranial morphotype reconstructions for ancestral catarrhines as Colobus- or Hylobates-like, characterized by a globular anterior braincase and orthognathy. By resolving several equivocal craniofacial morphocline polarities, these discoveries lay the foundation for a revised interpretation of the ancestral cranial morphology of Catarrhini more consistent with neontological and existing paleontological evidence.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Characterization of exogenous type D retrovirus from a fibroma of a macaque with simian AIDS and fibromatosis.

A novel type D retrovirus was isolated by cocultivation of explants of fibromatous tissue from a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) with immunodeficiency and retroperitoneal fibromatosis. This type D virus, isolated from a macaque with simian acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (SAIDS-D/Washington), is exogenous and is partially related to the Mason-Pfizer and the langur monkey type D viruses. The SAiDS-D virus can be distinguished from all other primate retroviruses by antigenicity and molecular hybridization. Nucleic acid hybridization studies reveal that the origin of the SAIDS-D isolate may reside in Old World monkey (subfamily Colobinae) cellular DNA.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1980

Intergroup infant kidnapping in Hanuman langur.

The Hanuman langur, Presbytis entellus (Primates, Cercopithecidae, Colobinae), is under investigation in its wild state around Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India, since 1967. Jodhpur constitutes its extreme western range of distribution beyond which lies the Great Indian Desert. Infant transfer, infant killing [see Mohnot, 1971a, b], and intergroup infant kidnapping were frequently observed in this habitat. Details pertaining to intergroup infant kidnapping by allomothers of neighboring groups are presented here.

Agonistic Behavior↗
PubMed1982

Molar size sequence in Old World monkeys.

The molar size sequence is examined in a variety of Old World monkeys. The M3 greater than M2 greater than M1 progression is common in the Papionini and Colobinae and rare in the Cercopithecini. The maxillary molars are much more variable in their size relations than the mandibular molars. The findings indicate necessary caution when using the molar size sequence for taxonomic purposes.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

The lacrimal fossa of cercopithecoidea, with special reference to cladistic analysis of Old World monkey relationships.

Re-examination of lacrimal fossa patterns in extant cercopithecoids indicates that the last common ancestor of Cercopithecini and Papionini, and hence of Cercopithecinae, probably retained a maxillary contribution to the lacrimal fossa, as did the common ancestor of Colobinae. Consequently, the presence of a maxilla-lacrimal fossa cannot be used to assess the subfamily affinity of Old World monkeys. In addition to being correlated with general facial lengthening, the derived, exclusively lacrimal pattern of Erythrocebus, Mandrillus, Papio, Theropithecus and some (but not all) guenons, macaques and mangabeys may be associated with extreme narrowing of the interorbital septum. Moreover, the derived condition may have evolved in response to independent exploitation of open country habitats as it enhances protection of the lacrimal sac and serves to reduce eye infection in terrestrial species.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Evolutionary history of the Cercopithecidae.

The application of cladistic methods (especially a concentration on shared derived rather than ancestral characters) permits the distinction of four dental and two cranial morphocytes among the Cercopithecidae. Comparison with fossils suggests that the Fayum parapithecids are not specially related to the Old World monkeys, while other undoubted Fayum 'hominoids' may share derived features with monkeys. Miocene Victoriapithecus 'species' may document a stage very close to the split between Colobinae and Cercopithecinae. Later African colobines appear to form a monophyletic group, more arboreal than the extinct European branch; Asian forms may be specially related to the latter. Among the Cercopithecinae, after a Miocene separation from the high-forest Cercopithecini, the Papionini divided into three groups: geladas, sub-Saharan Papio-related 'baboons' and Mediterranean-Eurasian macaque relatives; each of these underwent Plio-Pleistocene adaptive radiations and subsequent taxonomic diminution.

Africa↗
PubMed1997

Mineral and phytochemical influences on foliage selection by the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus).

Primate diets may be influenced by the phytochemical composition of potential food resources. This study examined the protein, fiber, and mineral content of leaves from plant species used as food resources by the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) in Tanjung Puting National Park, Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia. In addition, leaf samples were collected from nonfood resources based upon relative density in previously established vegetation plots. Higher concentrations of crude protein, phosphorus, potassium, and zinc were found in young leaves. Mature leaves had higher levels of magnesium, manganese and calcium compared to young leaves. Leaves from species used as food resources were significantly higher in protein (9.9% vs. 8.5%) and lower in fiber (30.5% vs. 40.0% acid detergent fiber) than the leaves from species not used as food sources. Food resources also contained higher concentrations of phosphorus and potassium; nonfood resources contained higher concentrations of calcium and manganese. Proboscis monkeys appear to follow the typical colobine trend: a diet relatively high in protein and low in digestion inhibitors (fiber). Little previous work has examined mineral content as a selection factor in primate food choices. Leaves from species used as food resources contained less calcium (0.35%), iron (34 mg/kg) and phosphorus (0.15%) than dietary standards established for captive nonhuman primates, but values were similar to those established for ruminant herbivores. Other mineral concentrations (potassium, magnesium, manganese, sodium, and zinc) met or exceeded recommended levels for both primates and ruminants. Comparison of diverse nutrients in native diets may provide insight into suitability of domestic animals models for providing adequate diets in captive feeding situations, as well as help define resource limitations in natural environments.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Seed dispersal by neotropical seed predators.

From a plant's perspective, the difference between a seed predator and a seed disperser should be straightforward: attract animals that will disperse seeds and defend seeds from potential predators. Unlike pulp-eating frugivores, seed predators regularly encounter diverse plant protective mechanisms. The purpose of this paper is to examine feeding constraints, morphological adaptations, and the mechanical process of seed predation. While there is evidence that some seed predators cause severe losses to seed crops, there is also evidence that seed predators enhance seed dispersal and germination. We also examine four methods by which neotropical seed predators may contribute to dispersal. 1) Seed predators examined here ingested fruit when seeds were full-sized, but not yet mature (i.e., seeds of mature fruit may be avoided by seed predators and available for dispersal by other frugivores). 2) Sympatric seed predators may ingest seeds from different plants thus reducing overall predator load on any individual plant. 3) Seed predators that manipulate seeds (e.g., remove pericarp and seed coat) may enhance germination if the prepared seeds are dropped, discarded, or buried and not ingested. 4) Small seeds may miss mastication and swallowed intact with a food bolus. The last mechanism is the most likely to contribute to seed dispersal by the widest array of vertebrate seed predators, but primate seed predators may facilitate seed dispersal using all four mechanisms. Therefore, the traditional dichotomy of seed predator vs. seed disperser oversimplifies the interactions between seed predators and plants.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Seasonality of matings and births in captive Sichuan golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana).

This study, based on three years of mating behavior observations and 10 years of birth records, reveals that Sichuan golden monkeys in captivity displayed a marked seasonality of mating behavior and births. The peak of matings occurred around October, and births occurred in March-June. The birth peak followed the mating peak by six to seven months. This seasonal cycle of matings and births was similar to observations made in the wild, where both temperature and food resources were favorable in spring. The time delay between peaks of matings and births was the approximate length of gestation, which implies that mating behavior was concentrated during the period of conception. We suggest that the peak of births in captive Sichuan golden monkeys occurred during the time of year with the most favorable environmental conditions, and the peak of matings corresponded with the period of conception.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Chromosome painting shows that the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) has a derived karyotype and is phylogenetically nested within Asian Colobines.

The exceptional diploid number (2n=48) of the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) has played a pivotal role in phylogenies that view the proboscis monkey as the most primitive colobine, and a long-isolated genus of the group. In this report we used molecular cytogenetic methods to map the chromosomal homology of the proboscis monkey in order to test these hypotheses. Our results reveal that the N. larvatus karyotype is derived and is not primitive in respect to other colobines (2n=44) and most other Old World monkeys. The diploid number of 2n=48 can be best explained by derived fissions of a segment of human chromosomes 14 and 6. The fragmentation and association of human chromosomes 1 and 19 as seen in other Asian colobines, but not in African colobines, is best explained as a derived reciprocal translocation linking all Asian colobines. The alternating hybridization pattern between four segments homologous to human chromosomes 1 and 19 on N. larvatus chromosome 6 is the result of the reciprocal translocation followed by a pericentric inversion. N. larvatus shares this pericentric inversion with Trachypithecus, but not with Pygathrix. This inversion apparently links Nasalis and Trachypithecus after the divergence of Pygathrix. The karyological data support the view that Asian colobines, including N. larvatus, are monophyletic. They share many linking karyological features separating them from the African colobines. The hybridization pattern also suggests that Nasalis is nested within Asian Colobines and shares a period of common descent with other Asian colobines after the divergence of Pygathrix.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Changes of urinary steroid conjugates and gonadotropin excretion in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy in the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti).

The Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) is one of the most endangered species in the world, and it is endemic to China. According to our knowledge, there was no information on reproduction for this species. The present study was designed to understand the characteristics of reproductive hormone secretion during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy of this species by monitoring urinary estrone conjugate (E1C), pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PdG), bioactive follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). The urine samples were collected each day from four adult females for eight menstrual cycles, and once in 3 days during pregnancy (three full-term pregnancies, one mid-term abortion). The steroid conjugate was tested by radioimmunoassays (RIAs), and bioactive FSH and LH levels were measured in vitro by the sensitive bioassays granulosa cell aromatize bioassay (GAB) and rat interstitial cell testosterone (RICT), respectively. The results showed that: 1) E1C presented a preovulatory peak (183.9 +/- 8.6 ng/mgCr) followed by a definite elevation of PdG; 2) PdG in the luteal phase (754.4 +/- 30.6 ng/mgCr) was three- to fivefold higher than during the corresponding follicular phase (198.3 +/- 11.4 ng/mgCr); 3) the peaks of bio-LH and bio-FSH were on the same day, while the E1C peak was 1 or 2 days before the peaks for these two hormones; 4) bio-FSH levels were higher in the follicular phase than in the luteal phase, and bio-LH levels elevated slightly in the luteal phase; 5) the mean cycle length was 23.6 +/- 3.5 days (n = 3) based upon successive urinary LH peaks; 6) based on the interval from the day of E1C peak to the day of parturition, the gestation was 203.7 +/- 2.5 days (n = 3); and 7) both E1C and PdG increased and remained high after pregnancy, with a sharp decrease in basal levels following parturition or mid-term abortion. The results suggested that the pattern of reproductive hormones for R. bieti is similar to that of other Old World monkeys, but the concentration of the hormones is different from that of other species. This species has a longer progestation period, which may be related to its classification status.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Relationships between the fossil colobine Mesopithecus pentelicus and extant cercopithecoids, based on dental metrics.

Maxillary dental measurements from six specimens of Mesopithecus pentelicus, 64 cercopithecines, 59 African colobines, and 64 Asian colobines were analyzed by means of a "nested research design" that was specifically designed to explore the affiliation between fossils and extant cercopithecoids at different systematic levels. The results showed that the variation among taxonomic groups was mainly associated with size; however, in addition, interesting shape differences emerged, molars were shown to be important discriminators, Mesopithecus was confirmed as a colobine (as expected) and found to be closer to Asian species than to African ones, and the odd-nosed colobines were found to share more dental similarities with Mesopithecus than other colobines. The last finding is in contrast to previous studies, in which it was proposed that M. pentelicus is morphologically closely related to the African colobus and the gray langur (Semnopithecus).

Africa↗
PubMed2004

Agonistic behavior and dominance relationships in female Phayre's leaf monkeys -- preliminary results.

Socioecological theory suggests a link between the strength of competition for food/safety, rates of agonism, structure of dominance hierarchies, and dispersal among group-living females. This study presents preliminary data on agonistic behavior and dominance relationships for female Phayre's leaf monkeys (Trachypithecus phayrei), a species in which females routinely disperse. Behavioral observations were conducted on two groups (four adult females, and five adult females plus two juvenile females, respectively) at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, northeast Thailand. Rates of agonistic behavior were analyzed from focal continuous recordings, while dominance hierarchies were constructed from all agonistic behaviors (focal and ad libitum sampling). Overall, female-female agonistic behaviors (aggression, submission, and displacements) occurred at a rate of < 0.25 interactions per hour. Agonistic interactions involving food occurred more frequently than expected based on feeding time. Females in both groups exhibited linear dominance hierarchies with some reversals, and possibly an age-inversed hierarchical structure in the larger group. The results fit well with previous results for colobine monkeys regarding frequency of interactions, displacements predominating agonistic behavior, and the possibility of an age-inversed hierarchy. The results contradict the suggested link between linearity of hierarchies and female philopatry. Future studies should consider the notion that female dispersal may coexist with linear dominance hierarchies.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2005

Parasite prevalence and richness in sympatric colobines: effects of host density.

Factors that influence proximity and the number and duration of contacts among individuals can influence parasite transmission among hosts, and thus parasite prevalence and species richness are expected to increase with increasing host density. To examine this prediction we took advantage of a unique situation. Following the clearing of a forest fragment that supported red colobus (Piliocolobus tephrosceles) and black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza), the animals moved into a neighboring fragment that we had been monitoring for a number of years and for which we had described the primate parasite community. After the animals immigrated into the fragment, the colobus populations more than doubled and colobus density became almost twice that found in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Despite this increase in host density, the richness of the parasite community did not increase. However, in both colobus species the prevalence of Trichuris sp., the only commonly occurring gastrointestinal parasite, increased. Over the next 5 years the prevalence and intensity of infection of Trichuris sp. in red colobus declined and their population numbers slowly increased. In contrast, the prevalence and intensity of infection of Trichuris sp. increased in black-and-white colobus and remained high following the immigration, and their population size declined. While Trichuris sp. infections are typically asymptomatic, we consider it a possibility that they contributed to the decline of the black-and-white colobus, and that the red colobus may be serving as a reservoir for Trichuris, thereby increasing the infection risk for black-and-white colobus.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Seasonal variation of diet and food availability in a group of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys in Shennongjia Nature Reserve, China.

We studied the diet and food availability of a group of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys for 14 months (July 2003 to September 2004, except for February) in the Shennongjia Nature Reserve, China. This species is primarily a lichen eater, with lichens (Usneaceae) accounting for 43.28% of feeding records (n=3,452). Other food types in the diet were young leaves (28.71%), fruits or seeds (14.57%), buds (5.36%), mature leaves (3.51%), herbs (2.09%), bark (1.36%), and flowers (1.13%). The monkeys used 23 plant species. Their diet showed a complicated seasonal variation: the monthly diet varied from primarily lichens in November-April, to a mixture of leaves and lichens in May-July, to a mixture of fruits or seeds and lichens in August-October (the latter depended on annual fruit and seed availability). The proportion of fruits or seeds in the diet was negatively correlated with that of lichens, which suggests that the monkeys prefer fruits or seeds to lichens when all of these items are available. The fruit or seed availability varied greatly between the two study years. The proportion of lichens, young leaves, flowers, and fruits or seeds in the diet was positively associated with their availability. The monkeys appeared to be selective feeders. They preferred 10 tree species for plant parts, and nine tree species for lichens. The selection index of tree species for lichens was positively related to lichen coverage per branch on tree species, demonstrating that the monkeys preferred tree species with abundant lichens, as well as dead trees for lichens. The results suggest that dead-tree harvesting in the reserve could significantly reduce the quality of habitat for these monkeys, and should therefore be prohibited. Connus controversa, Cerasus discadenia, Salix willichiana, and Malus halliana should be conserved as top priority species because the monkeys preferred them for both their vegetative parts and the lichens that grow on them.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗