Production, consumption and recent changes of consumption of alcoholic beverages. Part II. Changes in the consumption of alcoholic beverages in the 1960s.
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Alcohol Drinking↗
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[Polarography of beverages. II. Quantitative polarographic determination of copper in fermented and unfermented beverages].
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Beverages↗
[Beer as a mealtime beverage and an intoxicating beverage].
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Beer↗
[The effect of commercial beverages on enamel dissolution. Analysis of beverage contents and determination of calcium in decalcifying enamel].
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Beverages↗
[Histological study of the effect of lactobacillus beverages on human teeth. V: Changes in the labial enamel surfaces of rat molars due to beverages].
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Animals↗
The effect of increased beverage portion size on energy intake at a meal.
OBJECTIVE: This study examined the impact of increasing beverage portion size on beverage and food intake. SUBJECTS: Thirty-three subjects, 18 women and 15 men, were included. INTERVENTION: In a crossover design, subjects consumed lunch in the laboratory once a week for 6 weeks. At each test lunch, the same foods were served, but the beverage served was varied in type (cola, diet cola, or water) and portion size (360 g/12 fl oz or 540 g/18 fl oz). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Beverage intake (g); energy intake from foods and beverages (kcal); and ratings of hunger, satiety, and characteristics of the foods and beverages served. RESULTS: Increasing beverage portion size significantly increased the weight of beverage consumed, regardless of the type of beverage served (P < 0.05). As a consequence, for the caloric beverage, energy intake from the beverage increased by 10% for women and 26% for men when there was a 50% increase in the portion served (P < 0.01). Food intake did not differ between conditions, so when the energy from the caloric beverage was added to the energy from food, total energy intake at lunch was increased significantly (P < 0.001) compared with noncaloric beverages. CONCLUSIONS: Serving a larger portion of beverage resulted in increased beverage consumption, and increased energy intake from the beverage when a caloric beverage was served. Serving a caloric beverage resulted in an overall increase in total energy consumed at lunch. Therefore, replacing caloric beverages with low-calorie or noncaloric beverages can be an effective strategy for decreasing energy intake.
Adolescent↗
Secular trends in children's sweetened-beverage consumption (1973 to 1994): the Bogalusa Heart Study.
OBJECTIVE: To determine whether children's sweetened-beverage consumption has changed over a 21-year period (1973 to 1994) in Bogalusa, LA, and whether trends in energy intake, milk consumption, and body mass index (BMI) varied among the sweetened-beverage consumption groups. DESIGN: Information on food and nutrient intake was derived from a single 24-hour dietary recall collected from children who participated in one of seven cross-sectional surveys. SUBJECTS/SETTING: A total of 1,548 10-year-old children (65% white, 35% African American; 51% female, 49% male) were randomly selected to participate in the study. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: The Cochran-Armitage Trend test was applied to examine the trends in sweetened-beverage consumption by 10-year-old children over a 21-year period. A general linear model was used to examine the trend in milk consumption, energy intake, and BMI among the sweetened-beverage consumption groups. RESULTS: The percentage of children consuming sweetened beverages significantly decreased from 83% (1973) to 81% (1994) (P <.05), particularly consumption of soft drinks (P <.01) and coffee with sugar ( P <.0001). However, the mean gram amount of tea with sugar consumed significantly increased (P <.0001), with no changes in the mean gram amount of fruit drinks, soft drinks, and coffee with sugar consumed. When comparing tertiles of sweetened-beverage consumption over time, the mean gram consumption significantly increased from 1973 to 1994 for those children who were in the medium (P <.001) to high (P <.0001) tertiles. The mean BMI significantly increased (P <.001) from 1973 to 1994 in children within all of the sweetened-beverage consumption groups; however, there were no significant differences in total BMI across the sweetened-beverage consumption groups. The total gram amount of milk consumption was significantly lower in the medium to high sweetened-beverage consumption groups compared with the lower to no sweetened-beverage consumption groups. Total energy intake remained unchanged from 1973 to 1994 within all four sweetened-beverage consumption groups. Total energy intake was significantly higher in the high sweetened-beverage consumption group compared with the other three sweetened-beverage consumption groups. CONCLUSIONS: Children's sweetened-beverage consumption has changed over a 21-year period. The percentage of children consuming sweetened beverages decreased from 1973 to 1994, particularly consumption of soft drinks and coffee with sugar. Data suggest that there was no linear relationship between sweetened-beverage consumption and BMI and total energy intake. However, total milk consumption was lower in the medium to high sweetened-beverage consumption groups compared with the low to no consumption groups. More studies are needed to confirm these regional findings, which may not be reflective of national trends.
Animals↗
Does the consumption of caloric and non-caloric beverages with a meal affect energy intake?
Beverages are frequently consumed with meals, but their influence on meal energy intake is not understood. We hypothesized that differences in the energy, nutrient content, and sensory properties of beverages consumed with a meal would affect intake. Forty-four women ate lunch in the laboratory once a week for 6 weeks. Lunch was consumed ad libitum, and was served with one of five beverages that were consumed in full, or no beverage. The beverages were 360 g of water, diet cola, regular cola, orange juice, and 1% milk. Results showed an effect of beverage type on meal intake (p<0.0001). Energy intake did not differ among the non-caloric and no-beverage conditions. Similarly, energy intake from lunch (including beverage) did not differ among the caloric beverage conditions. When a caloric beverage (156 kcal; 653 kJ) was consumed with the meal, energy intake was 104+/-16 kcal (435+/-67 kJ) greater than when a non-caloric beverage or no beverage was consumed. Subjects' ratings of fullness after lunch did not differ among the beverage conditions, but were lower for the no-beverage condition. These results show that when caloric beverages are consumed with a meal they add to energy intake from food, without significantly affecting satiety ratings.
Adolescent↗
A new proposed guidance system for beverage consumption in the United States.
The Beverage Guidance Panel was assembled to provide guidance on the relative health and nutritional benefits and risks of various beverage categories. The beverage panel was initiated by the first author. The Panel's purpose is to attempt to systematically review the literature on beverages and health and provide guidance to the consumer. An additional purpose of the Panel is to develop a deeper dialog among the scientific community on overall beverage consumption patterns in the United States and on the great potential to change this pattern as a way to improve health. Over the past several decades, levels of overweight and obesity have increased across all population groups in the United States. Concurrently, an increased daily intake of 150-300 kcal (for different age-sex groups) has occurred, with approximately 50% of the increased calories coming from the consumption of calorically sweetened beverages. The panel ranked beverages from the lowest to the highest value based on caloric and nutrient contents and related health benefits and risks. Drinking water was ranked as the preferred beverage to fulfill daily water needs and was followed in decreasing value by tea and coffee, low-fat (1.5% or 1%) and skim (nonfat) milk and soy beverages, noncalorically sweetened beverages, beverages with some nutritional benefits (fruit and vegetable juices, whole milk, alcohol, and sports drinks), and calorically sweetened, nutrient-poor beverages. The Panel recommends that the consumption of beverages with no or few calories should take precedence over the consumption of beverages with more calories.
Alcohol Drinking↗
Adults with healthier dietary patterns have healthier beverage patterns.
There is an absence of research examining associations between food and beverage intake patterns and most research has centered on soft drinks, whereas research on overall beverage patterns is absent. Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 99-02 for adults aged 19 y and older, we independently examined beverage and food intake patterns, as well as their interrelations. Cluster analysis generated mutually exclusive intake patterns for beverages and foods. Multinomial logistic regression models provided the odds of a given beverage pattern for each food pattern; we then compared the probability of a given beverage pattern for each food pattern. Six beverage and 6 food patterns emerged. Beverage patterns revealed that calorically sweetened, non caloric, and diet beverages tended to be consumed independently of one another. Being in the Snacks and High-Fat Foods cluster increased the odds of being in the Coffee and Soda (odds ratio (OR): 1.62 [95% CI: 1.27-2.06]) or Nutrients and Soda (OR: 1.51 [95% CI: 1.14-2.00]) beverage clusters and decreased the odds of being in the Water and Tea (OR: 0.51 [95% CI: 0.52-0.97]) cluster relative to the odds of being in the Water, Coffee, and Tea cluster. The opposite was true for the Vegetable pattern. Furthermore, persons who had a healthier food pattern had a higher probability of having a non caloric beverage pattern than persons who did not. Increasing awareness of both the contribution of calorie-containing beverages to overall energy intake and dietary patterns associated with these beverages helps inform policies targeted at reducing energy intake in the population.
Adult↗
Dental caries and beverage consumption in young children.
OBJECTIVE: Dental caries is a common, chronic disease of childhood. The impact of contemporary changes in beverage patterns, specifically decreased milk intakes and increased 100% juice and soda pop intakes, on dental caries in young children is unknown. We describe associations among caries experience and intakes of dairy foods, sugared beverages, and nutrients and overall diet quality in young children. METHODS: Subjects (n = 642) are members of the Iowa Fluoride Study, a cohort followed from birth. Food and nutrient intakes were obtained from 3-day diet records analyzed at 1 (n = 636), 2 (n = 525), 3 (n = 441), 4 (n = 410), and 5 (n = 417) years and cumulatively for 1 through 5 (n = 396) years of age. Diet quality was defined by nutrient adequacy ratios (NARs) and calculated as the ratio of nutrient intake to Recommended Dietary Allowance/Adequate Intake. Caries were identified during dental examinations by 2 trained and calibrated dentists at 4 to 7 years of age. Examinations were visual, but a dental explorer was used to confirm questionable findings. Caries experience was assessed at both the tooth and the surface levels. Data were analyzed using SAS. The Wilcoxon rank sum test was used to compare food intakes, nutrient intakes, and NARs of subjects with and without caries experience. Logistic and Tobit regression analyses were used to identify associations among diet variables and caries experience and to develop models to predict caries experience. Not all relationships between food intakes and NARs and caries experience were linear; therefore, categorical variables were used to develop models to predict caries experience. Food and beverage intakes were categorized as none, low, and high intakes, and NARs were categorized as inadequate, low adequate, and high adequate. RESULTS: Subjects with caries had lower median intakes of milk at 2 and 3 years of age than subjects without caries. Subjects with caries had higher median intakes of regular (sugared) soda pop at 2, 3, 4, and 5 years and for 1 through 5 years; regular beverages from powder at 1, 4, and 5 years and for 1 through 5 years; and total sugared beverages at 4 and 5 years than subjects without caries. Logistic regression models were developed for exposure variables at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 years and for 1 through 5 years to predict any caries experience at 4 to 7 years of age. Age at dental examination was retained in models at all ages. Children with 0 intake (vs low and high intakes) of regular beverages from powder at 1 year, regular soda pop at 2 and 3 years, and sugar-free beverages from powder at 5 years had a decreased risk of caries experience. High intakes of regular beverages from powder at 4 and 5 years and for 1 through 5 years and regular soda pop at 5 years and for 1 through 5 years were associated with significantly increased odds of caries experience relative to subjects with none or low intakes. Low (vs none or high) intakes of 100% juice at 5 years were associated with decreased caries experience. In general, inadequate intakes (vs low adequate or high adequate intakes) of nutrients (eg, riboflavin, copper, vitamin D, vitamin B(12)) were associated with increased caries experience and low adequate intakes (vs inadequate or high adequate intakes) of nutrients (eg, vitamin B(12), vitamin C) were associated with decreased caries experience. An exception was vitamin E; either low or high adequate intakes were associated with increased caries experience at various ages. Multivariable Tobit regression models were developed for 1- through 5-year exposure variables to predict the number of tooth surfaces with caries experience at 4 to 7 years of age. Age at dental examination showed a significant positive association and fluoride exposure showed a significant negative association with the number of tooth surfaces with caries experience in the final model. Low intakes of nonmilk dairy foods (vs high intakes; all subjects had some nonmilk dairy intakes) and high adequate intakes of vitamin C (vs inadequate and low adequate intakes) were associated with fewer tooth surfaces having caries experience. High intakes of regular soda pop (vs none and low intakes) were associated with more tooth surfaces having caries experience. CONCLUSIONS: Results of our study suggest that contemporary changes in beverage patterns, particularly the increase in soda pop consumption, have the potential to increase dental caries rates in children. Consumption of regular soda pop, regular powdered beverages, and, to a lesser extent, 100% juice was associated with increased caries risk. Milk had a neutral association with caries. Associations between different types of sugared beverages and caries experience were not equivalent, which could be attributable to the different sugar compositions of the beverages or different roles in the diet. Our data support contemporary dietary guidelines for children: consume 2 or more servings of dairy foods daily, limit intake of 100% juice to 4 to 6 oz daily, and restrict other sugared beverages to occasional use. Pediatricians, pediatric nurse practitioners, and dietitians are in a position to support pediatric dentists in providing preventive guidance to parents of young children.
Carbonated Beverages↗
Effects of a carbohydrate-protein beverage on cycling endurance and muscle damage.
INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to determine whether endurance cycling performance and postexercise muscle damage were altered when consuming a carbohydrate and protein beverage (CHO+P; 7.3% and 1.8% concentrations) versus a carbohydrate-only (CHO; 7.3%) beverage. METHODS: Fifteen male cyclists (mean (.-)VO(2peak) = 52.6 +/- 10.3 mL x kg x min) rode a cycle ergometer at 75% (.-)VO(2peak) to volitional exhaustion, followed 12 - 15 h later by a second ride to exhaustion at 85% (.-)VO(2peak). Subjects consumed 1.8 mL x kg BW of randomly assigned CHO or CHO+P beverage every 15 min of exercise, and 10 mL x kg BW immediately after exercise. Beverages were matched for carbohydrate content, resulting in 20% lower total caloric content per administration of CHO beverage. Subjects were blinded to treatment beverage and repeated the same protocol seven to 14 d later with the other beverage. RESULTS: In the first ride (75% (.-)VO(2peak)), subjects rode 29% longer (P < 0.05) when consuming the CHO+P beverage (106.3 +/- 45.2 min) than the CHO beverage (82.3 +/- 32.6 min). In the second ride (85% (.-)VO(2peak)), subjects performed 40% longer when consuming the CHO+P beverage (43.6 +/- 12.5 min) than when consuming the CHO beverage (31.2 +/- 8.7 min). Peak postexercise plasma CPK levels, indicative of muscle damage, were 83% lower after the CHO+P trial (216.3 +/- 122.0 U x L) than the CHO trial (1318.1 +/- 1935.6 U x L). There were no significant differences in exercising levels of (.-)VO(2), ventilation, heart rate, RPE, blood glucose, or blood lactate between treatments in either trial. CONCLUSION: A carbohydrate beverage with additional protein calories produced significant improvements in time to fatigue and reductions in muscle damage in endurance athletes. Further research is necessary to determine whether these effects were the result of higher total caloric content of the CHO+P beverage or due to specific protein-mediated mechanisms.
Adolescent↗
Lead and cadmium exposures from canned and non-canned beverages in Nigeria: a public health concern.
The lead and cadmium levels of canned and non-canned foods purchased in Nigeria were studied. Fifty samples of these beverages were digested in nitric acid and were analyzed using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The cadmium levels ranged from 0.003-0.081 mg/L for the canned and 0.006-0.071 mg/L for non-canned beverages. About 85.71% of the canned beverages had cadmium levels that exceeded the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 0.005 mg/L set by US EPA while 82.7% non-canned beverages had cadmium levels exceeding the MCL. The mean and median levels of cadmium exceeded the MCL in both the canned and non-canned beverages. Whereas only 79.3% of the non-canned beverages showed lead levels that exceeded the US EPA's MCL of 0.015 mg/L, 100% of the canned beverages had lead levels that were greater than the MCL. The range of the lead in the canned beverages was 0.002-0.0073 and 0.001-0.092 mg/L for the non-canned beverages. The mean and median values of lead exceeded the MCL in both the canned and non-canned beverages. The calculated amount of lead and cadmium in three beverages were 0.204 mg (204 microg) and 0.177 mg (177 microg), respectively. These represent the estimated intake of a consumer who takes three of the products selected randomly in a week; assuming an average volume of one liter (1 L) for each product. Taken together 86% and 84% of the 50 beverages (canned and non-canned) studied in March, 2005 in Nigeria failed to meet the US EPA criteria for acceptable lead and cadmium levels in consumer products.
Beverages↗
Carbonated beverages and urinary calcium excretion.
BACKGROUND: Intake of carbonated beverages has been associated with increased fracture risk in observational studies. The usual explanation given is that one or more of the beverage constituents increase urinary calcium. OBJECTIVE: We assessed the short-term effects on urinary calcium excretion of carbonated beverages of various compositions. DESIGN: An incomplete random block design was used to study 20-40-y-old women who customarily consumed > or =680 mL carbonated beverages daily. Four carbonated beverages were tested: 2 with caffeine and 2 without. Two contained phosphoric acid as the acidulant and 2 contained citric acid. The study included one neutral control (water) and one positive control (skim or chocolate milk). Serving size was 567 mL for the carbonated beverages and water and 340 mL for the milks. Beverages were consumed with a light breakfast after an overnight fast; no other foods were ingested until urine collection was complete. pH, titratable and total acidity, sodium, creatinine, and calcium were measured in 2-h (morning) fasting and 5-h postbeverage urine specimens. RESULTS: Relative to water, urinary calcium rose significantly only with the milks and the 2 caffeine-containing beverages. The excess calciuria was approximately 0.25 mmol, about the same as previously reported for caffeine alone. Phosphoric acid without caffeine produced no excess calciuria; nor did it augment the calciuria of caffeine. CONCLUSIONS: The excess calciuria associated with consumption of carbonated beverages is confined to caffeinated beverages. Acidulant type has no acute effect. Because the caffeine effect is known to be compensated for by reduced calciuria later in the day, we conclude that the net effect of carbonated beverage constituents on calcium economy is negligible. The skeletal effects of carbonated beverage consumption are likely due primarily to milk displacement.
Adult↗
Beverage intake among preschool children and its effect on weight status.
OBJECTIVE: The obesity epidemic in the United States continues to increase. Because obesity tends to track over time, the increase in overweight among young children is of significant concern. A number of eating patterns have been associated with overweight among preschool-aged children. Recently, 100% fruit juice and sweetened fruit drinks have received considerable attention as potential sources of high-energy beverages that could be related to the prevalence of obesity among young children. Our aim was to evaluate the beverage intake among preschool children who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2002 and investigate associations between types and amounts of beverages consumed and weight status in preschool-aged children. METHODS: We performed a secondary analysis of the data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2002, which is a continuous, cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of the noninstitutionalized population of the United States. It included the collection of parent reported demographic descriptors, a 24-hour dietary recall, a measure of physical activity, and a standardized physical examination. The 24-hour dietary recall was obtained in person by a trained interviewer and reflected the foods and beverages that were consumed by the participant the previous day. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey food groups were classified on the basis of the US Department of Agriculture's Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies. We reviewed the main food descriptors used and classified all beverages listed. One hundred percent fruit juice was classified as only beverages that contained 100% fruit juice, without sweetener. Fruit drinks included any sweetened fruit juice, fruit-flavored drink (natural or artificial), or drink that contained fruit juice in part. Milk included any type of cow milk and then was subcategorized by percentage of milk fat. Any sweetened soft drink, caffeinated or uncaffeinated, was categorized as soda. Diet drinks included any fruit drink, tea, or soda that was sweetened by low-calorie sweetener. Several beverages were removed from the analysis because of low frequency of consumption among the sample. Water was not included in the analysis because it is not part of the US Department of Agriculture's Food and Nutrient Database categories. For the purposes of this analysis, the beverages were converted and reported as ounces, rather than grams, as reported by the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, to make it more clinically relevant. The child's BMI percentile for age and gender were calculated on the basis of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria and used to identify children's weight status as underweight (< 5%), normal weight (5% to < 85%), at risk for overweight (85% to < 95%), or overweight (> or = 95%). Because of the small number of children in the underweight category, they were included in the normal-weight category for this analysis. Data were analyzed using SUDAAN 9.0.1 statistical software programs. SUDAAN allows for improved accuracy and validity of results by calculating test statistics for the stratified, multistage probability design of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Sample weights were applied to all analyses to account for unequal probability of selection from oversampling low-income children and black and Mexican American children. Descriptive and chi2 analyses and analysis of covariance, adjusting for age, gender, ethnicity, household income, energy intake, and physical activity, were conducted. RESULTS: All children who were aged 2 to 5 years were identified (N = 1572). Those with missing data were removed from additional analysis, resulting in a final sample of 1160 preschool children. Of the 1160 children analyzed, 579 (49.9%) were male. White children represented 35%, black children represented 28.3%, and Hispanic children represented 36.7% of the sample. Twenty-four percent of the children were overweight or at risk for overweight (BMI > or = 85%), and 10.7% were overweight (BMI > or = 95%). There were no statistically significant differences in BMI between boys and girls or among the ethnicities. Overweight children tended to be older (mean age: 3.83 years) compared with the normal-weight children (mean age: 3.48 years). Eighty-three percent of children drank milk, 48% drank 100% fruit juice, 44% drank fruit drink, and 39% drank soda. Whole milk was consumed by 46.5% of the children, and 3.1% and 5.5% of the children consumed skim milk and 1% milk, respectively. Preschool children consumed a mean total beverage volume of 26.93 oz/day, which included 12.32 oz of milk, 4.70 oz of 100% fruit juice, 4.98 oz of fruit drinks, and 3.25 oz of soda. Weight status of the child had no association with the amount of total beverages, milk, 100% fruit juice, fruit drink, or soda consumed. There was no clinically significant association between the types of milk (percentage of fat) consumed and weight status. In analysis of covariance, daily total energy intake increased with increased consumption of milk, 100% fruit juice, fruit drinks, and soda. However, there was not a statistically significant increase in BMI on the basis of quantity of milk, 100% fruit juice, fruit drink, or soda consumed. CONCLUSIONS: On average, preschool children drank less milk than the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommendation of 16 oz/day. Only 8.6% drank low-fat or skim milk, as recommended for children who are older than 2 years. On average, preschool children drank < 6 oz/day 100% fruit juice. Increased beverage consumption was associated with an increase in the total energy intake of the children but not with their BMI. Prospectively studying preschool children beyond 2 to 5 years of age, through their adiposity rebound (approximately 5.5-6 years) to determine whether there is a trajectory increase in their BMI, may help to clarify the role of beverage consumption in total energy intake and weight status.
Beverages↗
Transitions in infants' and toddlers' beverage patterns.
OBJECTIVE: To describe transitions and patterns in infants' and toddlers' beverage intakes, with focus on nonmilk beverages. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study was conducted by telephone to obtain a 24-hour dietary recall of infants' and toddlers' food intakes, as reported by mothers or other primary caregivers. SUBJECTS: A nationwide sample of infants and toddlers (n=3,022) ages 4 to 24 months, who participated in the Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (FITS). ANALYSES: Beverages were categorized as total milks (ie, breast milk, infant formulas, cow's milk, soy milk, goat's milk), 100% juices, fruit drinks, carbonated beverages, water, and "other." Analyses included means +/- standard deviations, percentages, frequencies, nutrient densities, and linear regression. RESULTS: Beverages provided 84% of total daily food energy for infants 4 to 6 months of age, decreasing to 36% at ages 19 to 24 months. Apple juice and apple-flavored fruit drinks were the most frequently consumed beverages in the 100% juice and fruit drink categories, respectively. Juices, fruit drinks, and carbonated beverages appeared to displace milk in toddlers' diets (P<.0001). APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: This research shows that beverages make important contributions to infants' and toddlers' energy and nutrient needs, but they must be wisely chosen. Registered dietitians should advise parents and caregivers that excessive intakes of any beverage, including milks and 100% juices, may displace other foods and beverages in the diet and/or contribute to excess food energy (kcal). Further research is needed to define excessive amounts in each beverage category, and such guidance could be very useful to parents and caregivers of infants and toddlers.
Animals↗
Effect of temperature and expectations on liking for beverages.
Three experiments investigated the influence of expectation on liking ratings of beverages at different temperatures. The first confirmed the general belief that people like certain beverages at certain familiar temperatures and dislike them at others. In the second experiment, subjects tasted and rated how much they liked four beverages (chicken bouillon, red wine, fruit punch and water) at three different temperatures (hot, room temperature, and cold) with their eyes closed (beverages not identified by the experimenter) and with their eyes open (beverages identified by the experimenter). They then rated how much they thought they would like these same beverages plus a number of new beverages at the three temperatures. Subjects rated the tastes of the beverages at unfamiliar temperatures (e.g., cold bouillon) when tasting them better than they thought they would. However, even after a few opportunities to taste a beverage at an unfamiliar temperature, expectations about its taste did not change. Experiment 3 successfully altered liking ratings of beverages by changing expectations concerning the temperature at which an unfamiliar beverage is typically consumed. The results argue for an important role for culture-based expectations in determining preferred temperatures for foods.
Adult↗
[An experimental study on demineralization of several beverages on bovine enamel].
OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to investigate the demineralization effects of several beverages on bovine enamel. METHODS: The concentration of calcium and phosphate in these beverages were measured by using EL 312e Micro-Plate after the bovine enamel was exposed to beverages for a period of 7 days. RESULTS: The data indicated that almost all of these beverages could cause demineralization of bovine enamel, except mineral water, and the concentration of calcium and phosphate in these beverages changed after the bovine enamel was exposed to beverages. There were great significant differences in demineralization abilities among different beverages (P < 0.01). The concentration of calcium and phosphate in beverages also changed with time (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: All these beverages, except mineral water have erosive effects on bovine enamel. Demineralization degree varied with kinds of beverages. The fruit juice has the highest erosive effect on the enamel, and the calcium milk has the lowest erosive effect on the bovine enamel, when comparing with other beverages.
Animals↗