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PubMed2005

The role of varroa mites in infections of Kashmir bee virus (KBV) and deformed wing virus (DWV) in honey bees.

To determine the roles of varroa mites in activating or vectoring viral infections, we performed quantitative comparison of viral infections between bees with and without mites by dot blot analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Under natural and artificial mite infestations, bee pupae contained significantly higher levels of Kashmir bee virus (KBV) and deformed wing virus (DWV) RNAs and KBV structural proteins than mite-free pupae. Moreover, in mite-infested bee pupae, DWV had amplified to extremely high titers with viral genomic RNA being clearly visible after separation of total bee RNA in agarose gels. Linear regression analysis has shown a positive correlation between the number of mites introduced and the levels of viral RNAs. The detection of viral RNAs in the nymph and adult mites underline the possible role of varroa in virus transmission. However, most groups of virus-free adult mites (9/12) were associated with bee pupae heavily infected by viruses, suggesting that the elevated viral titers in mite-infested pupae more likely resulted from activated viral replication. Based on these observations and our concurrent research demonstrating suppressed immune responses in bees infested with mites, we propose that parasitization by varroa suppresses the immunity of honey bees, leading to activation of persistent, latent viral infection.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Orchid bees don't need orchids: evidence from the naturalization of an orchid bee in Florida.

Almost 200 species of orchid bees are the exclusive pollinators of nearly 700 specialized orchids in the neotropics. This well-known mutualism involves orchids, called perfume orchids, which produce species-specific blends of floral fragrances, and male orchid bees, which collect and use these fragrance compounds during their courtship. We report here the naturalization of an orchid bee, Euglossa viridissima, in southern Florida, USA, where perfume orchids are absent. Chemical analysis of the contents of the fragrance storage organs in the hind tibias of 59 male bees collected in Florida identified 55 fragrance compounds, including 27 known from the perfumes of nine species of E. viridissima's orchid mutualists in Mesoamerica. Aromatic leaves, such as basil, were found to be important surrogate sources of needed fragrance compounds in Florida. The bee's ability to live and become abundant in the absence of its orchid mutualists suggests that the orchid bee-perfume orchid mutualism may be facultative for the bees, even though it is obligatory for the orchids. This invasive bee visits and potentially pollinates the flowers of many plants in Florida, behavior that could promote the abundance of selected exotic and native species.

Animal Communication↗
PubMed1983

Antibodies to purified bee venom proteins and peptides. II. A detailed study of changes in IgE and IgG antibodies to individual bee venom antigens.

Antibodies to individual bee venom antigens were studied in detail in nine bee sting-allergic patients who received venom immunotherapy without side effects, in two patients who failed to reach maintenance, and in two whose sensitivity returned. The study was confined to patients who had IgE antibodies to at least one of four purified bee venom antigens at the start of treatment. IgE and IgG antibodies to phospholipase A2 (PLA2), hyaluronidase (HYAL), and acid phosphatase (ACID P) and IgE antibodies to melittin (MEL) were measured, and changes in the antibody levels were followed during bee venom immunotherapy. Two contrasting patterns of antibody response were seen in the nine successfully treated patients. In five patients there was a rise in serum IgG antibodies to the same antigens as the IgE antibodies. In two patients' serum IgE antibody to HYAL or ACID P fell without a marked IgG antibody response to these antigens, although high levels of IgG antibody to PLA2 were present in both. Although the first pattern is consistent with a "blocking" role for IgG antibody, clearly the second is not. Not all patients can be conveniently divided into these two categories, and two patients did not show any significant change in either IgG or IgE antibody but were nevertheless able to tolerate the maintenance dose of 100 micrograms of venom. Two patients who failed to reach the maintenance dose of 100 micrograms because of their allergic reactions to the injections of venom were distinguished by (1) very high serum IgE antibody and (2) a low ratio of IgG/IgE antibody. Passive immunization with IgG antibody from a hyperimmune beekeeper was, however, protective in these patients, although it did not raise their overall serum IgG antibody level very much. We are unable to explain either the failure of conventional therapy or the beneficial effect of passive immunization in these two patients. Two bee sting--allergic beekeepers lost their sensitivity to stings, but later, when their sera contained IgE antibody to another bee venom antigen, they reacted to stings and inhalation of beehive dander. These data suggest that either falling IgE antibody or IgG- "blocking" antibody could be responsible for providing clinical protection to bee venom--allergic subjects. Renewed clinical sensitivity was observed when the IgE response was modulated, with patients making IgE antibody first to one antigen and then to another.

Acid Phosphatase↗
PubMed1997

Sensitivity to bee and wasp venoms: association with specific IgE responses to the bee and wasp venom and HLA DRB1 and DPB1.

BACKGROUND: Stings from bees and wasps can cause systemic reactions which can be fatal in some individuals. In these venom-sensitive patients, specific IgE to the venom is produced and is considered to participate in the adverse reactions. This immune response requires antigen presentation by human leucocyte antigens (HLA) class II molecules, which includes DR and DP, which are present on antigen presenting cells. OBJECTIVE: To test for associations between HLA class II DRB1 and DPB1 alleles and life-threatening sensitivity to both bee and wasp venoms. To establish further whether any associations are independent of the atopy phenotype. METHODS: A total of 33 bee- and 44 wasp-venom-sensitive patients was studied. DRB1 genotypes were determined by single stranded oligonucleotide (SSO) probing of PCR products, and DPB1 genotypes by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis. Total and specific IgE were measured using the Pharmacia Immunocap, FEIA. Patients with specific IgE to the venom antigens only were termed monosensitive and those with additional specific IgE to HDM and/or GP were termed polysensitive. RESULTS: Allele frequencies were compared to an unrelated control population. The 33 bee-sensitive patients had a greater prevalence of DRB1*07 alleles than the control subjects, 26% vs 14%, with an odds ratio (OR) of 2.1 (95% CI, 1.2-3.7, P = 0.015, corrected for multiple comparisons, Pc = ns). This association was confined to the 15 monosensitive bee patients, who had a 43% DRB1*07 allele frequency when compared with 11% in the 18 polysensitive bee patients, OR 6.1 (95% CI, 1.73-22, P = 0.004, Pc = 0.05), and when compared with a control group of non-venom subjects, 43% vs 16%, OR 3.9 (95% CI, 1.72-9.0, P = 0.002, Pc = 0.02). The 44 wasp-sensitive patients had an increase in the DRB1*11 allele when compared with the control subjects, 13% vs 6%, with an OR 2.2 (95% CI, 1.0-4.6, P = 0.04, Pc = NS), and a decreased prevalence of DRB1*04 alleles, 10% vs 19%, with an OR 0.33 (95% CI, 0.24-0.99, P = 0.04, Pc = NS), but these were not significant when multiple comparisons were taken into account. The DPB1 alleles were not significantly different between the venom sensitive patients and the controls. CONCLUSION: Patients monosensitive to bee venom had a significantly greater prevalence of DRB1*07 alleles than the non-venom, control population suggesting that IgE responses in these patients may, in part be controlled by immune response HLA class II genes. These results are also suggestive of wasp-sensitive patients having a higher prevalence of DRB1*11 and a lower prevalence of DRB1*04 than the control population.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1979

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of allergen-specific IgG antibodies in bee sting allergic patients hyposensitized with pure bee venom.

An ELISA is presented for detection of IgG antibodies to bee venom. By this method, sera of 11 bee sting allergic patients, who were treated with rapid hyposensitization with pure bee venom, were tested. The highest antibody titers were observed after 30 days of treatment, a maximum rise of 7.4 +/- 1.5 log 2-titer steps. Pure bee venom is shown to be more potent immunologically than whole body bee extract. Prediction of the clinical success, measured by tolerance to a bee sting challenge, is not yet possible using venom specific IgG determinations.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Detection of Deformed wing virus, a honey bee viral pathogen, in bumble bees (Bombus terrestris and Bombus pascuorum) with wing deformities.

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) productively infected with Deformed wing virus (DWV) through Varroa destructor (V. destructor) during pupal stages develop into adults showing wing and other morphological deformities. Here, we report for the first time the occurrence of bumble bees (Bombus terrestris, Bombus pascuorum) exhibiting wing deformities resembling those seen in clinically DWV-infected honey bees. Using specific RT-PCR protocols for the detection of DWV followed by sequencing of the PCR products we could demonstrate that the bumble bees were indeed infected with DWV. Since such deformed bumble bees are not viable DWV infection may pose a serious threat to bumble bee populations.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

Hymenoptera sting hypersensitivy: IgE, IgG and haemagglutinating antibodies to bee venom constituents in relation to exposure and clinical reaction to bee stings.

High levels of IgE antibodies (Ab) to bee venom constituents were mainly found in patients with bee sting hypersensitivity, whereas the sera of bee keepers usually contained high levels of IgG Ab and haemagglutinins, representing blocking antibody activity. In bee keepers there was a positive correlation between the degree of severity of an adverse reaction to bee stings and IgE Ab, a negative one between the severity of reaction and IgG Ab and haemagglutinins, a positive one between the number of stings per season and IgG Ab and haemagglutinins, and negative one between the number of stings and IgE Ab. This suggests a mutual dependence of the production of IgE Ab and blocking Ab in a regularly exposed population. No such correlation was found in bee sting-allergic patients, indicating that other factors influence the severity of reaction in this only sporadically exposed group. The values of IgG Ab and haemagglutinins correlated well with each other, with IgG Ab giving a better correlation with severity of reaction and number of stings than the haemagglutinins.

Anaphylaxis↗
PubMed2004

Defensive behavior of honey bees: organization, genetics, and comparisons with other bees.

One key advantage of eusociality is shared defense of the nest, brood, and stored food; nest defense plays an important role in the biology of eusocial bees. Recent studies on honey bees, Apis mellifera, have focused on the placement of defensive activity in the overall scheme of division of labor, showing that guard bees play a unique and important role in colony defense. Alarm pheromones function in integrating defensive responses; honey bee alarm pheromone is an excellent example of a multicomponent pheromonal blend. The genetic regulation of defensive behavior is now better understood from the mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with variation in defensiveness. Colony defense in other eusocial bees is less well understood, but enough information is available to provide interesting comparisons between A. mellifera and other species of Apis, as well as with allodapine, halictine, bombine, and meliponine bees. These comparative studies illustrate the wide variety of evolutionary solutions to problems in colony defense in the Apoidea.

Agonistic Behavior↗
PubMed1994

Multiplication of Clostridium botulinum in dead honey-bees and bee pupae, a likely source of heavy contamination of honey.

Multiplication of Clostridium botulinum in honey-bees was examined to explain the heavy contamination of honey which may occur with this pathogen. When dead bees were inoculated with C. botulinum spores at levels of 10(2)-10(3) and incubated aerobically for 10 days, the organisms increased to 10(4)-10(5). When botulinum spores were inoculated together with Bacillus alvei, the growth of most strains was significantly enhanced (10(5)-10(7)). Similar results were obtained in bee pupae, but not in bee larvae. The heavy contamination of honey with botulinum spores that we have sometimes encountered may have been caused by contamination from dead bees in which C. botulinum had proliferated.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Bee and bee products allergy in Turkish beekeepers: determination of risk factors for systemic reactions.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of allergic reactions due to bee stings in beekeepers varies in different regions of the world. The aim of this study was to evaluate the characteristics of sting reactions and the risk factors for developing systemic reactions in Turkish beekeepers. METHODS: A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to 1250 beekeepers to be completed in seven different cities of Turkey. A total of 494 (39.6 %) questionnaires were returned. RESULTS: There were 444 subjects (89.9 %) with a history of sting exposure in the previous 12 months. Systemic reactions were present in 29 subjects (6.5 %) and nine (2 %) reactions were anaphylactic. Fifty-five percent of beekeepers reported more than 100 bee stings in the previous year. When systemic reactions were controlled by age and duration of beekeeping in a logistic regression model, seasonal rhinitis (OR: 4.4, 95 % CI: 1.2-11.5), perennial rhinitis (OR: 4.6, 95 % CI: 1.2-18.2), food allergy (OR:7.0, 95 % CI: 2.0-25.0), physician-diagnosed asthma (OR: 8.0, 95 % CI: 2.5-25.6), having an atopic disease of any type (OR: 3.3, 95 % CI: 1.2-8.7) and having two or more atopic diseases (OR: 10.9, 95 % CI: 3.5-33.8) were significantly associated with systemic reactions due to bee sting in the previous 12 months. CONCLUSION: The incidence of systemic reactions in Turkish beekeepers is low, which might be due to the protective effect of a high frequency of bee stings. The risk of systemic reactions increases approximately three-fold when one atopic disease is present and eleven-fold when two or more concurrent atopic diseases are present with respect to no atopic disease.

Adult↗
PubMed1977

Immunoassay for honey bee cytochrome c in single animals with cytochrome c-coated bacteriophages: a sensitive tool for the study of caste formation in the honey bee, Apis mellifera.

The development of a sensitive viroimmunoassay for honey bee cytochrome c and its usage for early detection of caste differentiation is described. Pure honey bee cytochrome c was isolated from workers and used to produce antibodies in rabbits. Bacteriophage T4 was chemically modified by covalent attachment of honey bee cytochrome c using tolylene-2,4-diisocyanate as a cross-linking agent. The immunospecific inactivation of this bacteriophage-cytochrome c conjugate by anti-cytochrome c antibodies can be inhibited by free cytochrome c. In quantitative determinations, 50% inhibition is reproducibly achieved at a concentration of 6 ng/ml (5 pmol/ml) and as little as 0.3 ng/ml (0.25 pmol/ml) could be detected by this system. Cytochrome c concentrations were measured in individual animals and substantial differences corresponding larval stages of worker and queen bees are reported.

Antibodies↗
PubMed2002

Ecdysteroid titer and reproduction in queens and workers of the honey bee and of a stingless bee: loss of ecdysteroid function at increasing levels of sociality?

Evidence from field wasps and bumblebees appoints the endocrine system as a mediator between dominance status and ovarian activity in primitively social Hymenoptera. In this comparative study on ecdysteroid titers in the highly social honey bee, Apis mellifera, and a stingless bee, Melipona quadrifasciata, we focussed on the relationship between the ecdysteroid titer, social conditions (presence or absence of the queen), and ovary activity. In contrast to bumblebees, ecdysteroid titers in honey bee and stingless bee workers were either not altered, or dropped to even lower levels after the queen was removed. We also did not detect differences between virgin queens and mated, egg laying queens. These results suggest that ecdysteroids may have lost most of their reproductive functions - yet gained functions in larval caste differentiation - as higher levels of social organization were attained in the evolution of social insects. The observation that ecdysteroid titers are transiently elevated in young workers adds a new, yet functionally still speculative facet to hormonal regulation in insect societies.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Africanized honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) have a greater fidelity to sunflowers than European bees.

A study of sunflower, Helianthus annuus L., pollen collection by Africanized and European honey bees, Apis mellifera L., was conducted in a hybrid seed production field in Argentina. Africanized honey bees collected significantly larger proportions of sunflower pollen than did European honey bees. The result suggests that Africanized bees would be more efficient for commercial sunflower seed production.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Severe and fatal mass attacks by 'killer' bees (Africanized honey bees--Apis mellifera scutellata) in Brazil: clinicopathological studies with measurement of serum venom concentrations.

In São Paulo State, Brazil, five males, aged between 8 and 64 years, were attacked by 'Africanized' honey bees (Apis mellifera scutellata). The estimated number of stings received by each patient ranged from > 200 to > 1000. All five were transferred to intensive care units in São Paulo City. Clinical features included intravascular haemolysis, respiratory distress with ARDS, hepatic dysfunction, rhabdomyolysis (with myoglobinaemia and myoglobinuria), hypertension and myocardial damage (perhaps explained by release of endogenous catecholamines by venom phospholipase A2 and mellitin), shock, coma, acute renal failure and bleeding. Laboratory findings included gross neutrophil leucocytosis, elevated serum enzymes [AST, ALT, LDH, CPK (predominantly CPK-MM)] and creatinine. Clotting times were slightly prolonged. Despite treatment with antihistamines, corticosteroids, bronchodilators, vasodilators, bicarbonate, mannitol and mechanical ventilation, three of the patients died between 22 and 71 h after the attacks, with histopathological features of ARDS, hepatocellular necrosis, acute tubular necrosis, focal subendocardial necrosis and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Whole bee venom and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) antigen concentrations were measured in serum and urine for the first time, using enzyme immunoassay. High venom and PLA2 concentrations were detected in serum and urine for more than 50 h after the stings in two fatal cases, in one of which the total circulating unbound whole venom was estimated at 27 mg, one hour after the attack. An antivenom should be developed to treat the increasing numbers of victims of mass attacks by Africanized 'killer' bees in USA, Middle and South America.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Bee venom anti-idiotypic antibody is associated with protection in beekeepers and bee sting-sensitive patients receiving immunotherapy against allergic reactions.

Bee venom (BV) anti-idiotypic (anti-Id) antibodies (Abs) were studied in nonreactive beekeepers, patients receiving BV immunotherapy (IT), and in patients with bee-sting hypersensitivity. Detection of serum anti-BV was determined either by the Phadebas RAST test for IgE and IgG concentrations or by isoelectric focusing followed by capillary blotting onto nitrocellulose membranes. Clonotypic analyses of Ab were made with specific probes for BV or BV anti-Id; 13/14 nonreactive multiple-sting beekeepers (93%; p = 0.00006) and 3/3 patients receiving BV IT (100%; p = 0.0026) had detectable amounts of BV anti-Id in serum, whereas five BV-sensitive patients (0%) and four ragweed-sensitive control patients (0%) did not. Beekeeper's serum containing BV anti-Id was found to recognize and bind to IgE anti-BV idiotype from two different patient sources and inhibit their reactions in a Phadebas RAST test in a dose-dependent manner. Nonreactive beekeepers generally had BV-specific IgE levels less than 0.35 PRU/ml in serum with detectable BV anti-Id. BV-allergic patients before IT had elevated BV-specific serum IgE levels, even in the presence of BV-specific IgG greater than 136 U/ml with no BV anti-Id present. These findings provide strong support for a protective role of BV anti-Id against bee sting--allergic reactions.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Detection of chronic bee paralysis virus and acute bee paralysis virus in Uruguayan honeybees.

Chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV) causes a disease characterized by trembling, flightless, and crawling bees, while Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV) is commonly detected in apparently healthy colonies, usually associated to Varroa destructor. Both viruses had been detected in most regions of the world, except in South America. In this work, we detected CBPV and ABPV in samples of Uruguayan honeybees by RT-PCR. The detection of both viruses in different provinces and the fact that most of the analyzed samples were infected, suggest that, they are widely spread in the region. This is the first record of the presence of CBPV and ABPV in Uruguay and South America.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed1998

Successful immunotherapy with T-cell epitope peptides of bee venom phospholipase A2 induces specific T-cell anergy in patients allergic to bee venom.

BACKGROUND: Specific immunotherapy with honeybee venom (BV) is highly effective, but allergic side effects can occur during treatment. Immunotherapy with peptides containing major T-cell epitopes of the relevant allergen or allergens provides an alternative strategy without these problems. OBJECTIVE: The study investigates the immunologic mechanisms and clinical effects of immunotherapy with T-cell epitope peptides of the major BV allergen, the phospholipase A2 (PLA). METHODS: Five patients with IgE-mediated systemic allergic reactions to bee stings were treated with a mixture of three T-cell epitope peptides of PLA. Ten patients allergic to BV receiving whole BV immunotherapy served as control subjects. Increasing doses of the peptide mixture, up to a maintenance dose of 100 microg, were administered subcutaneously within 2 months. The patients were then challenged with PLA and 1 week later with a bee sting. The cellular and humoral immune response was measured in vitro. RESULTS: No allergic side effects were caused by the peptide immunotherapy, and all patients tolerated the challenge with PLA without systemic allergic symptoms. Two patients developed mild systemic allergic reactions after the bee sting challenge. After peptide immunotherapy, specific proliferative responses to PLA and the peptides in peripheral blood mononuclear cells were decreased in successfully treated patients. The production of TH2 and TH1 cytokines was inhibited, and B cells were not affected in their capacity to produce specific IgE and IgG4 antibodies. Their levels increased after allergen challenge in favor of IgG4. CONCLUSIONS: Immunotherapy of BV allergy with short T-cell peptides of PLA induces epitope-specific anergy in peripheral T cells and changes the specific isotype ratio in a fashion similar to that of conventional immunotherapy in successfully treated patients.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

A double blind study on immunotherapy with chemically modified honey bee venom: monomethoxy polyethylene glycol-coupled versus crude honey bee venom.

24 patients with honey bee sting allergy were treated with either honey bee venom (HBV) or monomethoxy polyethylene glycol-coupled HBV (PEG-HBV) in a double blind trial. Both treatments induced a strong increase in HBV-specific IgG antibodies in most patients. Immunotherapy with PEG-HBV was much better tolerated than that with HBV. Conversely, patients on HBV did considerably better during a sting challenge with a living honey bee. Only 4 developed a large local and one a mild systemic reaction compared to 7 large local and 3 moderate to severe systemic reactions in the PEG-HBV-group. A higher maintenance dose of PEG-HBV may still be well tolerated but prove more effective at reexposure.

Adult↗