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PubMed2004

Gunther von Hagens and Body Worlds Part 1: the anatomist as prosektor and proplastiker.

Recent calls to reintegrate the sciences and humanities are challenged by the contemporary work of anatomist Gunther von Hagens and his Body Worlds exhibits of plastinated cadavers. The anatomical quest to understand our physical interior has long been in tension both with aesthetic ideals and religious sensitivities regarding the metaphysical significance of the human body. Part I of this two-part Historical Note examines tensions epitomized by Goethe's figures of the prosektor and proplastiker. The former, driven by scientific curiosity, is willing to destroy, even desecrate, the human form to obtain knowledge. The latter demurs at such mutilation of our physical body, wondrous even in death--seeking instead to rejoin what the prosektor has pulled apart, to restore human dignity. In the confrontation between prosektor and proplastiker, roles disturbingly fused in the person of von Hagens himself, questions arise regarding the authenticity of models as well as the appropriate recipients of such mediated yet intimate anatomical knowledge. Part II will focus on religious perspectives on the human body, variously interpreted as God's handiwork, habitation for the soul, and vehicle of resurrection. Consideration also is given to the role of anatomist as priest, prophet, and Promethean creator, roles self-consciously embraced by von Hagens.

Anatomy, Artistic↗
PubMed2006

Medical professionalism and the clinical anatomist.

Medical professionalism has become an important issue for medical education and practice. The core attributes of professionalism derive from the roles and responsibilities of professions and from the nature of medicine as a healing profession. In medical education, most of the focus on professionalism has been directed to the clinical arena, yet it is critically important that the attributes of professionalism be manifested in basic science courses--especially anatomy--as well as in clinical experiences, because the transformation from medical student to physician begins at the outset of medical school. Throughout history, anatomists have exemplified many of the attributes and values of professionalism, and clinical anatomists today still have much to offer. Anatomy faculty have an important responsibility to nurture and exemplify professionalism.

Anatomy↗
PubMed2006

Virtual anatomy: an anatomist's playground.

Virtual anatomy presents significant advantages over the reality of a cadaver as it can provide different views and perspectives, portability, longevity, standardization, diversity and most importantly the opportunity to learn the anatomy of the living human body instead of the corpse. Virtual anatomy is the life-like appearance of visible anatomy, a good example of which is the evolution of the Visible Human. Racial and statistical diversity is already developing as the population of photographic "Visible Humans" is now at least 10. Virtual anatomy should include additional diversity and therefore, consideration should be given to the preparation of more visible anatomy that will better support the virtual integration of all areas of physiology, kinematics, pathology and pathophysiology, development and evolution. Integration of anatomists with mathematicians, computer scientists, information scientists, physiologists, pathologists and clinicians (and LIST other basic scientist) is needed in order to facilitate this development. As this unfolds it is proposed, or challenged, that anatomists should maintain their position of responsibility for building anatomy as the foundation for all medical and healthcare education. In order to maintain that position they must understand and participate in this development and enjoy the rewards of teaching more visually empowering, functional, and clinical anatomy. The trip is a long one and is only about to begin but the train is leaving. Are you on board?

Anatomy↗
PubMed2007

A portrait of Aristotle as an anatomist: historical article.

Aristotle is principally known as a theoretical philosopher and logician but he was also an eminent natural scientist. In particular, he should be considered probably the first anatomist in the modern sense of this term and the originator of anatomy as a special branch of knowledge. Although it seems certain that he did not perform dissections of human adult cadavers, he examined human fetal material and, above all, made systematic analysis of animal bodies. His contribution to comparative anatomy, as well as to human anatomy, was enormous. He founded the anatomical discipline on precise descriptive and scientific ground. He also coined a series of technical terms, which are still in use in the modern nomenclature. His observational skill was astounding. Although many of his physiological concepts turned out to be wrong, still his structural description of organs and body parts was often first-rank. The present study will chiefly focus on Aristotle's anatomical work and will provide only essential mention of his complex physiological and philosophical doctrine. The main purpose of this article is indeed to offer to today's anatomists a systematic account of the extraordinary achievements of this great pioneer of our discipline.

Anatomy↗
PubMed2004

Anatomists and entrepreneurs in early eighteenth-century London.

Anatomical demonstration in the eighteenth century took place in many formats. In this essay I discuss public anatomical demonstration as performed by entrepreneurial anatomists in London between 1700 and 1740. These anatomists offered courses, advertised in newspapers, to anyone who was willing to pay. In contrast to courses offered in official settings to prospective physicians and surgeons, these courses emphasized natural philosophy and natural theology rather than practical knowledge. Entrepreneurial lecturers also aimed to entertain. In this article I examine the lectures of James Douglas, William Cheselden, and Frank Nicholls, each of whom differed significantly from the others in style and content but were all anatomical entrepreneurs. All of them, moreover, employed not only human cadavers but also living and dead animals in their lessons. I examine the content of the lectures and the motivations of the lecturers' audiences. I also argue that the prevailing historiographical representation of eighteenth-century science as "polite" requires considerable revision to accommodate as impolite an activity as public anatomy.

Anatomy↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Emerico Luna, an anatomist and a fervid intellectual.

On 11 March 2004, the Section of Human Anatomy of Palermo was dedicated and registered to the anatomist Emerico Luna (Palermo 1882-1963) with a ceremony (moderated by Giovanni Zummo) with the participation of institutional personalities and Italian anatomists. Luna, who was an acute morphologist and a scholar of Riccardo Versari (1865-1943), was the continuator of Francesco Todaro's Anatomical School and occupied the Chair at the University of Palermo that had belonged to Levi since 1919. His wide histo-anatomical culture culminates in the collaboration to the "Trattato di Neurologia", the richly composed treatise by Bertelli (1931). Then his studies and his teaching reached to the Anatomia Clinica Regionale (1951). In charge of Histology and Normal Human Anatomy in 1920-21, he became a full professor and a master till 1952. He had so many students: among them Ignazio Fàzzari (1889-1986) who had the chair in the University of Florence, Alberto Monroy who had the charge of Compared Anatomy in the University of Palermo and Arcangelo Pasqualino from Marineo. Luna was co-founder and leader of the "Italian Society of Anatomy". He developed an intense research above all on the nervous system, the connective tissues, the arteries of the brain, and the experimental embryology, developing the radiological and clinical anatomy. He also dedicated himself to literature writing in 1953, among the scientific and literary works, a booklet titled Alla Fiera Delle Fantasie where he discuss the fantasy in a style that recall the literary evasion of the last period of crepuscolarism.

Anatomy↗
PubMed1990

Historical aspects of the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists.

The need for closer and personal scientific exchange among anatomists, histologists, embryologists, morphologists, anthropologists, veterinarians, dentists, biologists, and zoologists, and professionals of allied health sciences, and their interest in the uniformity of the technological language they all used in teaching and research, led a group of leaders in the field of Anatomy to found the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA).

Anatomy↗
PubMed1998

The digital anatomist structural abstraction: a scheme for the spatial description of anatomical entities.

In this paper, we propose a generalized scheme for the symbolic description of the spatial attributes of anatomical entities. The power of the scheme lies in the ability to model the spatial objects at the highest level of granularity: information can be obtained at the desired level of detail needed for a given application. This scheme uses the topological classes of point, line, surface, and volume to represent zero-D, one-D, two-D and three-D objects. A spatial object participates as a node in three complementary networks; the topology network, the part-of network, and the spatial associations network. The topology network describes a spatial object in terms of its boundaries, the part-of network describes a spatial object in terms of its parts, and the spatial associations network describes the spatial object in terms of its relationships to other spatial objects. All three of the networks can be used in combination or alone to answer queries to the spatial information system. The Digital Anatomist Structural Abstraction together with the other components of the Digital Anatomist Foundational Model will provide the information for describing and reasoning about anatomical entities.

Anatomy↗
PubMed1995

Antonio de Gimbernat (1734-1816). Anatomist and surgeon.

While one of us (J.P.-L.) was completing his surgical internship at the Henry Ford Hospital of Detroit, Mich, during 1954 to 1956, he found with surprise that, although surgeons at the hospital could speak Gimbernat's ligament with reference to the treatment of crural hernia, practically none was aware that Antonio de Gimbernat was Spanish-Catalan, to be exact. Others ventured he might be French. We also observed, while attending the celebration of the centennial publication of Bassini's technique in Padua, Italy (1987), that a surprising number of European university professors also believed that Gimbernat was French. Since then, we who have held the same chair for more than 20 years at the Santa Cruz and San Pablo Hospital of Barcelona, Spain, that Gimbernat held in the 18th century have endeavored to vindicate the name of Antonio de Gimbernat i Arbós as the Spanish-Catalan anatomist and surgeon for whom a ligament was named and a surgical technique defined. When applied to the strangulated crural hernia, this surgical technique offers greater promise to the patient during surgery.

Anatomy↗
PubMed1999

Terminologia anatomica: new terminology for the new anatomist.

Over many years, anatomical terminology has been the subject of much controversy and disagreement. Previously, the International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee has been responsible for the production of six editions of Nomina Anatomica. In 1989 a new committee, the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT), was created by its parent body, the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA). FCAT has worked for 9 years and published Terminologia Anatomica (TA) in 1998. FCAT's aim has been to democratize the terminology and make it the internationally accepted, living language of anatomy. The worldwide adoption of the same terminology would eliminate national differences, which were causing extreme confusion in instances where the same structure was known by several names. The new terminology is thus the result of worldwide consultation and contains Latin and equivalent English terms. It is indexed in Latin and English and contains an index of eponyms in order to find the correct non-eponymous term. The future goal of FCAT is to continue to improve the terminology-new structures are described, different terms come into use, and the terminology needs to be expanded to include terms used by clinicians for structures that currently do not appear in the list. Future versions of the terminology must accommodate the needs of all who use it, both in the clinical and scientific worlds.

Anatomy↗
PubMed1997

Confessions of an American clinical anatomist.

The American Association of Clinical Anatomists (AACA) is a diverse group that includes practicing clinicians, some of whom work outside the academic realm, and other clinicians and basic scientists whose primary responsibility is to patient care, publication, and teaching. This essay pointedly examines why our professional activities often do not lend themselves to the personal and professional realizations for promotion, tenure, and prestige enjoyed by most research-oriented colleagues. Thus the issue of how we can thrive as a distinct group of academic professionals warrants sincere dialogue. Most of the scholarship contributed over the past 2 years to Clinical Anatomy has come from investigators outside the AACA, and only 11% of the AACA membership have published in Clinical Anatomy during this time. A self-examination and analyses of the issues that may bear on these findings are discussed in the hope that they may prompt introspection and encourage development of individual and association strategies that promote increased membership support of the AACA and its journal.

Anatomy↗
PubMed1999

The clinical anatomy of several invasive procedures. American Association of Clinical Anatomists, Educational Affairs Committee.

This paper by the Educational Affairs Committee of the American Association of Clinical Anatomists (AACA) is a sequel to one published earlier, A Clinical Anatomy Curriculum for the Medical Student of the 21st Century (Clin. Anat. 9:71-99). In that curricular document a number of invasive procedures that apply gross anatomy to current medical practices are cited. The present paper describes several of these invasive procedures in detail to demonstrate 1) that gross anatomy forms the foundation for their safe, efficient, and effective performance and 2) that such a foundation in gross anatomy is delineated in our previously published curricular document. Furthermore, the AACA Educational Affairs Committee hopes this paper will serve as a valuable resource for incorporating these and other invasive procedures into a clinical anatomy curriculum for students of medicine.

Anatomy↗
PubMed2004

Gunther von Hagens and Body Worlds part 2: The anatomist as priest and prophet.

Part 1 of this two-part series highlighted tensions between the anatomical quest for scientific knowledge about the human interior and artistic representations of the anatomized body, contrasting the roles of Goethe's scientific Prosektor and humanistic Proplastiker-roles disturbingly fused in Gunther von Hagens. Part 2 first examines religious interpretations of the human body that fuel the tensions manifest in anatomy art. The body in Western cultures is a sacred text amenable to interpretation as handiwork of God, habitation for the soul, and vehicle for resurrection. As handiwork of God the body beckons the anatomist's scalpel, helping establish dissection as the hallmark of Western medicine. The body as divinely designed machine encompasses the idea of an indwelling soul expressing its will in actions mediated through the intricate network of muscles-an understanding reflected in the oft occurring muscle men of early anatomical textbooks. Interconnections of body and soul in medieval somatic spirituality are examined with reference to ideas of resurrection and their impact on anatomical illustration. Part 2 concludes with consideration of von Hagens as priest and prophet, culminating in the Promethean impulse that recognizes not God but ourselves as proper owners and molders of our destiny, embodied in the plastinator's visionary quest to create the superhuman.

Anatomy, Artistic↗
PubMed2007

Wilhelm von Waldeyer-Hartz (1836-1921): an anatomist who left his mark.

Wilhelm Waldeyer was anatomist, physiologist, and pathologist during the German Empire (the so-called Second Reich). His scientific career left many traces still noticeable today. Not only is he commemorated in "his" pharyngeal lymphoid ring and other eponyms, but he also coined an impressive range of successful medical terms, including "chromosome" and "neuron." Moreover, Waldeyer left truly physical traces by donating parts of his body to his own Institute of Anatomy in Berlin. His scientific production does, however, also include "pseudoscientific" works, notably his questionable research on African brains.

Anatomy↗
PubMed1993

Knowledge-based client-server approach to structural information retrieval: the Digital Anatomist Browser.

Structural information can be defined as data and knowledge about biological objects ranging in size from molecules to the whole body. A framework is described for organizing structural information around a well-defined set of terminology and semantic relationships, and for disseminating multimedia structural information by means of a wide-area information server that is accessible over the internet. A Macintosh-based client of this server, called the Digital Anatomist Browser, has been used to teach neuroanatomy for the last 2 years. The client-server approach provides each student unlimited access to a rapidly growing knowledge base of structural biology that, while immediately useful for anatomy teaching, has the potential to be an organizing framework for other kinds of medical knowledge as well.

Artificial Intelligence↗
PubMed1998

Symposium on computer modelling for anatomists and clinicians.

The following review articles are based on presentations given at a Symposium on Computer Modelling for Anatomists and Clinicians held in July 1997 at the Department of Anatomy, University of Edinburgh. The Symposium formed part of the Summer Meeting of the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. There were 6 invited speakers, and 4 of these have produced review articles which are published in this issue of the Journal. In 3 of the presentations, recent advances in the use of 3D methodology to analyse mouse and human developmental anatomy were described. The reviews by Kaufman et al. and Baldock et al. (the latter to be published in a forthcoming issue of the Journal) complement each other in that they describe different aspects of a collaborative project (the Mouse Atlas Project, or MAP) involving the preparation of a text database of mouse developmental anatomy and a digital Atlas of normal mouse development. In the first of these presentations the principles underlying the methodology employed to reconstruct a range of early post-implantation mouse embryos spanning the stages between the primitive streak and the early limb-bud that had previously been serially sectioned was briefly described. Because of the efficiency of the computer technology involved (termed the warping program), the grey level images of the embryo histology could be arbitrarily resectioned to view the embryo as if sectioned in any orientation. Furthermore, all anatomically-defined tissues could be individually delineated (or painted) and viewed either in isolation or in combination with other appropriately labelled tissues and organs.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

[Johann Gottfried Zinn--a Franconian anatomist and botanist].

Johann Gottfried Zinn (1727-1759), a franconian anatomist and botanist made important contribution to the anatomy of the eye during his short life span. In his main book "Descriptio anatomica oculi humani" he gave the first detailed and comprehensive description of the anatomy of the human eye. During his professorship at the university of Göttingen the emphasis of his scientific work was in the field of botany. His memory will be kept by the anatomical terms "zonula ciliaris Zinnii" and the circulus arteriosus sclerae = Zinn-Haller's arterial circle. As a botanist Zinn was honoured by the fact that a flower (Zinnie) was named after him.

Anatomy↗