Studies on arboviruses in Egypt. I. Hemagglutination-inhibition antibodies against arboviruses in human population of Alexandria and Abyss areas.
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Antibodies↗
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[Chromatography on ion exchange cellulose and gel filtration on agarose of arboviruses and products extracted from these arboviruses].
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Arboviruses↗
[Parahodgkinal cutaneous lymphogranulomatosis and heavy Takyna arbovirus infection. 2 other dermatologic cases presenting a light infection of this arbovirus].
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Arbovirus Infections↗
A protective mechanism induced by live group B arboviruses against heterologous group B arboviruses independent of serum neutralizing antibodies or interferon.
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Alphavirus↗
A survey of the relationships among the viruses not considered arboviruses, vertebrates, and arthropods.
No single group of organisms demonstrates more extensive and diverse associations with animal viruses than the phylum Arthropoda. Compared with the well-recognized relationship found in arboviruses, however, most of the atypical arthropod-vertebrate relationships of the viruses normally not considered arboviruses have received much less attention, as they remain in the marginal areas of interest for most researchers in animal virology, veterinary medicine, medical entomology, and invertebrate pathology. However, this comprehensive review of the information gathered from several branches of virology by profession reveals highly valuable information potentially useful in the fields of research ranging from investigations of the mode of transmission of poorly understood or emerging viral diseases to studies of the evolution of biological transmission of animal viruses by arthropod vectors. The observations and data obtained for the animal virus relationships with arthropods and vertebrates outside the boundaries of arboviruses, in turn, can be used to reexamine more closely the definition of arboviruses. With increasing number of reports challenging one of the basic tenets of the definition of arbovirus (requirement of viremia in vertebrate host) and others describing virus-host relationships that complicate the definition of arbovirus, the accumulated information clearly demonstrates the difficulty of defining the boundaries of arboviruses.
Animals↗
[Arbovirus transmission cycles in Madagascar].
Some arboviruses are highly pathogenic for Men or animals, Arboviruses epidemiological patterns in Madagascar were determined by entomological, serological, and virological surveys. We listed potentials arboviruses vectors in Madagascar. Entomological results generated by us during five years, as well as prior to, are shown. We caught more than 150,000 hematophagous arthropods, belonging to 107 species at least. 3 of these species were new. 4183 inoculation pools were done. We studied serologically (by HI test) samples collected from 563 animals and 626 Men. Our data, in agreement with others collected from 1965 to 1982, demonstrate that arboviruses circulate in the whole island. Positive reactions were obtained mainly with Flavivirus, in particular with West-Nile. Nine various arboviruses, including dengue-2 virus isolated from an individual having travelled to La Réunion, have been isolated. Dakar-Bat and Mengo virus have been observed. We studied transmission cycles of the following viruses: Babanki, West-Nile, Rift Valley Fever, Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever, MMP 158, Ngari, Perinet and Andasibe; the last 2 being endemic. In relation to Madagascar biogeographic characteristics (long-term isolation, scarce communications, high endemicity, and low vertebrate density), we evaluated the risk of potential introduction and amplification of various arboviruses (dengue, yellow fever, japanese encephalitis, Sindbis and Chikungunya). The risk is very high for dengue due to the presence of susceptible mosquitoes strains while the virus circulates in East Africa and in the Indian Ocean area. This risk seems to be very low for yellow fever, and intermediate for other arboviruses.
Animals↗
[Transmission cycles of arboviruses in Madagascar].
Some arboviruses are highly pathogenic for Men or animals. Arboviruses epidemiological patterns in Madagascar were determined by entomological, serological, and virological surveys. We listed potentials arboviruses vectors in Madagascar. Entomological results generated by us during five years, as well as prior to, are shown. We caught more than 150,000 hematophagous arthropods, belonging to 107 species at least. 3 of these species were new. 4183 inoculation pools were done. We studied serollogically (by HI test) samples collected from 563 animals and 626 Men. Our data, in agreement with others collected from 1965 to 1982, demonstrate that arboviruses circulate in the whole island. Positive reactions were obtained mainly with Flavivirus, in particular with West-Nile. Nine various arboviruses, including dengue-2 virus isolated from an individual having travelled to La Réunion, have been isolated. Dakar-Bat and Mengo virus have been observed. We studied transmission cycles of the following viruses: Babanki, West-Nile, Rift Valley Fever, Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever, MMP 158, Ngari, Perinet and Andasibe; the last 2 being endemics. In relation to Madagascar biogeographic characteristics (long-term isolation, scarce communications, high endemicity, and low vertebrate density), we evaluated the risk of potential introduction and amplification of various arboviruses (dengue, yellow fever, japanese encephalitis, Sindbis and Chikungunya). The risk is very high for dengue due to the presence of susceptible mosquitoes strains while the virus circulates in East Africa and in the Indian Ocean area. This risk seems to be very low for yellow fever, and intermediate for other arboviruses.
Animals↗
Potential arbovirus emergence and implications for the United Kingdom.
Arboviruses have evolved a number of strategies to survive environmental challenges. This review examines the factors that may determine arbovirus emergence, provides examples of arboviruses that have emerged into new habitats, reviews the arbovirus situation in western Europe in detail, discusses potential arthropod vectors, and attempts to predict the risk for arbovirus emergence in the United Kingdom. We conclude that climate change is probably the most important requirement for the emergence of arthropodborne diseases such as dengue fever, yellow fever, Rift Valley fever, Japanese encephalitis, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, bluetongue, and African horse sickness in the United Kingdom. While other arboviruses, such as West Nile virus, Sindbis virus, Tahyna virus, and Louping ill virus, apparently circulate in the United Kingdom, they do not appear to present an imminent threat to humans or animals.
Animals↗
A multipurpose serological survey in Kenya. 2. Results of arbovirus serological tests.
Arbovirus infections are of public health interest in East Africa, where a very widespread epidemic of o'nyong-nyong fever was reported in 1959-60 and where the threat of yellow fever, present in neighbouring areas such as Ethiopia, remains. Sera collected in a serological survey in Kenya were therefore tested for antibodies against 3 group-A arboviruses (chikungunya, o'nyong-nyong and Sindbis), 6 group-B arboviruses (Zika, yellow fever, West Nile, Banzi, Wesselsbron and dengue 1), and Bunyamwera virus. The sera were examined mainly by the haemagglutination-inhibition test but a small proportion were also subjected to virus neutralization tests.The results showed that the prevalence of arbovirus tnfection varies markedly from area to area in Kenya. All types of arbovirus infections were more frequent on the coast than on the dry plateau around Kitui and the Lake Victoria area, The only exceptions were o'nyong-nyong and chikungunya, which were found to be just as prevalent on the coast as in Nyanza, where an epidemic was reported in 1959-60. Yellow fever antibodies were found to be present in about half of the people living on the coast but practically absent from the other two areas. It was concluded that the yellow fever antibodies in the coastal area must be due either to vaccination or to cross-reactions with other group-B arboviruses.
Adolescent↗
Arbovirus surveillance in Rhode Island: assessing potential ecologic and climatic correlates.
During 1995-2000, mosquitoes were collected from sites throughout Rhode Island and tested for the presence of arboviruses. Mosquito trapping was done weekly from June to October with CO2-baited light traps. In all, 186,537 mosquitoes belonging to 7 different genera were collected, of which Coquillettidia perturbans was most abundant. A total of 6,434 pools were processed for arbovirus isolation, from which 193 arboviral isolations were made. These included 109 Highlands J, 71 eastern equine encephalomyelitis, 1 California encephalitis serogroup, 2 Jamestown Canyon, 3 Cache Valley, and 9 Flanders viruses. Our isolations of Flanders virus represent the 1st reported occurrence of this virus in Rhode Island. After the 1999 sudden occurrence of the West Nile virus (WN) in the New York City area, a dead-bird surveillance program was started to test for this virus. Although no isolations of WN were made from mosquitoes, 87 virus isolations were made from a total of 330 wild birds tested. All the WN-infected birds were either American crows or blue jays. Isolation of WN from dead birds marked the 1st documented appearance of this virus in Rhode Island. Significant interannual variation of arbovirus activity in Rhode Island prompted us to examine if climate-associated factors such as rainfall and temperature correlate with virus activity. Total rainfall amounts from May to June were higher than normal in 1996 and 1998. These years showed significantly higher arbovirus activity. Deviations from normal temperature showed low correlation with arbovirus activity during the 6-year study period. Therefore, precipitation appeared to be more important than temperature in predicting arbovirus activity in Rhode Island.
Animals↗
Mosquito-borne arboviruses in Australia: the current scene and implications of climate change for human health.
Of the mosquito-borne arboviruses, the encephalitic Murray Valley encephalitis and Kunjin viruses are a major public health concern, but the arthritides Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses are more important in a public health sense, being responsible for a far greater number of infections. Reported cases of Ross River totalled approximately 30,000 during 1991-1996; there have been several widely separated outbreaks of Barmah Forest in recent years and case reports are increasing annually. Surveillance programmes have increased our understanding of the geographic regions, climatic conditions and vector factors associated with viruses. Virus activity is widespread but is often localised, is driven primarily by mosquito abundance and various species are involved; host factors are involved also, but are not well understood. Typically, mosquito populations are governed by availability of habitat and environmental conditions. Models of climate change predict increases in rainfall, tides and temperature for parts of Australia, and such changes have the potential to increase the risk of arbovirus transmission by increasing the distribution and abundance of vectors, and duration of mosquito and arbovirus seasons. However, the amplitude of climate change is uncertain and the ecology of arbovirus transmission is complex. It is likely that some areas will have increases in arbovirus activity and human infection with predicted climate change, but risk of increased transmission will vary with locality, vector, host and human factors.
Alphavirus Infections↗
Transmission of arboviruses without involvement of arthropod vectors.
Transmission of arboviruses (arthropod-borne viruses belonging to various virus families) without involvement of arthropod vectors has been documented for years, but the reports have not been reviewed systematically. The recent report of West Nile (WN) virus isolation from a hawk in mid-winter in New York (Garmendia et al., J. Clin. Microbiol. 38, 3110-3111, 2000) generated a considerable interest in this mode of arbovirus transmission. In this article, the data available worldwide are analyzed according to the factors involved in such a transmission under natural conditions, mode of infection, virus entry mechanism, administration and efficacy evaluation of vaccines, and significance in agricultural trade and public health. Analysis of numerous reports compiled for this review revealed that peroral and intranasal/aerosol transmissions are very common among arboviruses. The mechanism of virus infections in animals was most extensively studied for intranasal/aerosol infection, confirming two routes of virus spread to central nervous system (CNS), olfactory and hematogenous. To rule out the possibility of asymptomatic, cryptic infection the efficacy evaluation of candidates for vaccines against neurotropic arboviruses should include virus isolation from tissues of not only symptomatic but also of asymptomatic animals that survive intranasal virus challenge. Human activities, such as feeding livestock animals with food containing virus-contaminated meat and assembling a large number of livestock from many geographically-separated locations, have been identified as a cause of spread of some arboviral diseases. Despite numerous laboratory reports, the significance of this mode of transmission of arboviruses under natural conditions was rarely investigated, except for a few viruses important for veterinary medicine.
Animals↗
Classification, distribution and importance of arboviruses.
This essay reviews in concise form an extensive subject. Arborviruses belong to a number of different taxonomic groups, some of which include viruses not transmitted by arthropods. A state of the art definition of arboviruses is given which does recognise the importance of vertical transmission in arthropods to the basic maintenance of some arboviruses. Most of the arboviruses which affect humans are included in the families Togaviridae, Flaviviridae, Bunyaviridae, Reoviridae and Rhabdoviridae. Many arbovirus infections are symptomless. Clinical manifestations range from mild febrile illness, which may or may not be accompanied by skin rash and by arthralgia, to severe and often fatal encephalitis or haemorrhagic fever with shock. Three arboviral diseases considered at present as the most important ones are discussed in more detail: dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF), yellow fever and Japanese encephalitis (JE). They have caused some of the most devastating epidemics in recent years. DHF has developed into a major paediatric problem in South East Asia and the Western Pacific with over 6,000,000 hospital admissions and 20,000 deaths in the two regions over the last 20 years. Spectacular outbreaks of yellow fever, such as the one in Ethiopia in 1960-1962 with 15,000-30,000 estimated deaths, still occur in Africa in areas contiguous to rain forest regions where jungle yellow fever is enzootic. JE is characterized by significant mortality in children and old people in many countries of Asia, where the epidemiological patterns and the distribution of the disease have changed in recent years. The complex interrelated factors which are involved in arbovirus ecology are illustrated.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Animals↗
Plaque production by arboviruses in Singh's Aedes albopictus cells.
We report plaquing tests of 124 virus strains, mostly arboviruses of 21 serological groups, in Singh's line of Aedes albopictus cells. Thirty of these plaqued: all were arboviruses of six groups and were known or presumed to be mosquito borne. Failing to plaque were 86 strains of arboviruses, mostly tick borne, two strains of insect pathogens, and six animal viruses not classified as arboviruses. Among mosquito-borne agents, plaquing ability appeared related to serological classification. California group and most A-group viruses failed to plaque, but nearly all members of B and Bunyamwera groups readily plaqued. Within serological group B, 14 of 16 mosquito-borne agents plaqued, but none of 13 tick-borne or vector-unassociated viruses did so. Some implications of these results for recognition and classification of arboviruses are discussed.
Aedes↗
Rubella virus serology:detection of residual lipoprotein inhibitors of haemagglutination using sensitive indicator arboviruses.
Immune and non-immune rubella sera were examined in the haemagglutination inhibition (HAI) test to evaluate the removal of lipoprotein non-specific inhibitors (NSI) of haemagglutination after kaolin and manganous chloride/heparin treatments. The sera were titrated fresh or after lipoprotein deterioration brought about by ageing the samples at 4 degrees C for various periods of time and by freezing at -20 degrees C with subsequent thawing. Deterioration was seen as altered electrophoretic mobility while the lipoproteins in treated sera were detected by indicator arboviruses whose haemagglutination is known to be strongly inhibited by the native macromolecules. After both treatments, notably manganous chloride/heparin, residual NSI activity was detected in deteriorated samples, particularly with group B arboviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and west Nile viruses but generally less so or not at all with the group A arboviruses employed. Absolutely fresh sera are considered highly desirable for rubella virus HAI assay, and it is suggested that the efficiency of lipoprotein NSI removal regardless of treatment protocol could be monitored in parallel HAI tests using carefully chosen indicator arboviruses. This could be done in conjunction with density gradient centrifugation of doubtful sera should ultracentrifuging facilities be available. The suitability of the monitoring procedure would be dependent to some extent on whether certain arboviruses are known to be endemic in a particular area.
Antibodies, Viral↗
Relationship between the prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis B core antigen and arbovirus in fishermen from the Ribeira Valley, Brazil.
Sera from 299 fishermen 16 to 80 years old, residents in Cananeia and Iguape counties, southern cost of São Paulo State, Brazil, were studied in order to identify a possible association between the prevalence of specific antibodies to the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and exposure to haematophagus mosquitoes evaluated by the prevalence of arbovirus antibodies. This professional group presented the highest prevalence of arbovirus antibodies (54.1%) in past investigations carried out in this heavily forested region. Detection of antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc) in the sera was done by enzyme immunoassay (Roche). Prevalence of anti-HBc antibodies in this group was 31.4% (94/299) which is very high compared with 7.2% to 15.0% for different groups of healthy adults in State of São Paulo. No significant difference is observed between the prevalences of HBV antibodies in Iguape and Cananeia. Prevalence of anti-HBc and anti-arbovirus antibodies increases with age. There is a concordance in the distribution according to age groups of the frequency of anti-HBc and anti-arbovirus positive sera. Ag HBs was detected in 4% of the studied sera. These results support the hypothesis that the transmission of the hepatitis B virus and the arboviruses may be due to the same factor, one of the possibilities would be by anthropophilic mosquitoes.
Adolescent↗
The basis of arbovirus classification.
The biologically defined set of arboviruses contains well over 300 separate viruses which have been subdivided into some 40 serological groups on the basis of antigenic cross-reactivity. More than three quarters of all arboviruses can now bw placed into one of the following five major taxonomic genera based upon the fundamental properties of the virion: alphavirus, flavivirus, orbivirus, rhadovirus, bunyavirus. There are 20 alphaviruses, representing serological Group A, and 57 flaviviruses in serological Group B; these two genera fall into the familty Togaviridae. The 40 orbiviruses, in the family Reoviridae, include some 8 serological groups, and the 8 rhabdoviruses, in the family Rhabdoviridae include another 3 groups. About 160 bunyaviruses, family Bunyaviridae, are divisible into 20 serological groups, 10 of which show intra-group cross-reactions in the Bunyamwera supergroup. One arbovirus contains DNA, namely African swine fever virus; this is classified as an Iridovirus, or icosahedral cytoplasmic deoxyvirus. Nodamura virus, which has been classified as a picornavirus, must be reclassified on the evidence that it possesses a divided genome. A number of arboviruses remain unclassified in taxonomic terms. The absence of arbovirus representatives in several major genera, such as the adenoviruses and the myxoviruses is of no interest.
Arboviruses↗
Seroepidemiologic study of arbovirus infections in the north-east and south of Thailand.
Blood specimens were collected from villagers in Khon-Kaen province, in the north-eastern region, and in Songkhla province, in the southern region of Thailand in the pre- and post-epidemic seasons of hemorrhagic fever. The hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers of the specimens were measured against dengue virus type 2, type 4, Japanese encephalitis virus and chikungunya virus. In general, Khon-Kaen villagers showed higher levels of HI antibodies against these arboviruses than Songkhla villagers and in both areas the antibody level against chikungunya virus, a group A arbovirus, was usually much lower than those against group B arboviruses. Specimens from Khon-Kaen province had such high antibody positive rates for group B arboviruses (80-100%) from an early age (3-4 years), in the pre-epidemic season, that scarcely any increase in the positive rate was observed in the post-epidemic season. The positive rate in specimens from Songkhla province was not so high in the pre-epidemic season and some increase was seen in the post-epidemic season, especially in lower age groups (3-4 to 7-9 years). The patterns of HI antibody titers in different age groups in the Khon-Kaen and Songkhla provinces were also compared. The patterns changed with increase of ages and were also different with different viruses. The patterns for chikungunya virus were quite different from those for dengue type 2, type 4 and Japanese encephalitis virus. These results suggest that people in Khon-Kaen are exposed to group B arbovirus infections more often in childhood and attain high antibody levels more rapidly than people in Songkhla.
Adolescent↗