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PubMed2001

[No effect of aircraft crash near South Limburg (the Netherlands) on self-perceived health, but an increase in perceived environmental nuisance by the inhabitants].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the influence of an aircraft crash near the South of Limburg, the Netherlands, on the perceived physical and psychological health and annoyance of local residents. DESIGN: Controlled, blinded, follow-up questionnaire survey. METHOD: Three months before an aircraft crash occurred, randomly selected local residents and control subjects who lived approximately 20 km from the crash site were asked to complete a health questionnaire. The study was repeated one year after the crash. The aim of the survey was not mentioned in the questionnaire. The questionnaire asked about demographic features, physical health, psychological health and environmental nuisance. In the first survey, 544/926 (59%) questionnaires were successfully returned, and after the disaster this figure was 677/900 (75%). Linear regression modelling was used to check whether or not any differences in outcome were due to confounding demographic variables. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the perceived physical and psychological health of local residents before and after the aircraft crash. A year after the crash, the nuisance level of aircraft noise reported by local residents had markedly increased. Aircraft noise was the major cause of disturbance. More than 1 in 3 residents perceived daily aircraft noise as a nuisance compared with 1 in 6 before the crash. The scores of local inhabitants for annoyance due to aircraft odour and dust doubled after the crash. Compared with control subjects, local inhabitants scored more than 20 times higher for annoyance due to aircraft odour and 40 times higher for annoyance due to dust. The reported nuisance caused by road traffic noise, odour and dust also increased, although to a lesser extent. CONCLUSION: Health was not influenced by the aircraft crash. A year after the crash, there was a strong drop in tolerance of aircraft nuisance. There was also a reduction in the tolerance of comparable nuisance due, for example, to road traffic, although this change was less marked.

Accidents, Aviation↗
PubMed2003

A critical review of reported air concentrations of organic compounds in aircraft cabins.

This paper presents a review and assessment of aircraft cabin air quality studies with measured levels of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds (VOCs and SVOCs). VOC and SVOC concentrations reported for aircraft cabins are compared with those reported for residential and office buildings and for passenger compartments of other types of transportation. An assessment of measurement technologies and quality assurance procedures is included. The six studies reviewed in the paper range in coverage from two to about 30 flights per study. None of the monitored flights included any unusual or episodic events that could affect cabin air quality. Most studies have used scientifically sound methods for measurements. Study results indicate that under routine aircraft operations, contaminant levels in aircraft cabins are similar to those in residential and office buildings, with two exceptions: (1). levels of ethanol and acetone, indicators of bioeffluents and chemicals from consumer products are higher in aircraft than in home or office environments, and (2). levels of certain chlorinated hydrocarbons and fuel-related contaminants are higher in residential/office buildings than in aircraft. Similarly, ethanol and acetone levels are higher in aircraft than in other transportation modes but the levels of some pollutants, such as m-/p-xylenes, tend to be lower in aircraft.

Acetone↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Trends in cabin air quality of commercial aircraft: industry and passenger perspectives.

The small air space available per person in a fully occupied aircraft passenger cabin accentuates the human bioeffluent factor in the maintenance of air quality. The accumulation of carbon dioxide and other contributions to poor air quality that can occur with inadequate ventilation, even under normal circumstances, is related to the volume of available air space per person and various ventilation rates. This information is compared with established air quality guidelines to make specific recommendations with reference to aircraft passenger cabins under both normal and abnormal operating conditions. The effects of respiration on the air quality of any enclosed space from the respiration of a resting adult are estimated using standard equations. Results are given for different volumes of space per person, for zero air exchange, and for various air change rates. The required ventilation rates estimated in this way compared closely with results calculated using a standard empirical formula. The results confirm that the outside air ventilation required to achieve a target carbon dioxide concentration in the air of an occupied enclosed space remains the same regardless of the volume of that space. The outside air ventilation capability of older and more recent aircraft is then reviewed and compared with the actual measurements of cabin air quality for these periods. The correlation between calculated and measured aircraft cabin carbon dioxide concentrations from other studies was very good. Respiratory benefits and costs of returning to the 30% higher outside air ventilation rates and 8% higher cabin pressures of the 1960s and 1970s are outlined. Consideration is given to the occasional occurrence of certain types of aircraft malfunction that can introduce more serious contaminants to the aircraft cabin. Recommendations and suggestions for aircraft builders and operators are made that will help improve aircraft cabin air quality and the partial pressure of oxygen that is available to passengers at minimal cost. Also suggested are some measures that passengers can take to help improve their comfort and decrease their risk of illness, particularly on long-haul flights.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Aircraft and related factors in crashes involving spatial disorientation: 15 years of U.S. Air Force data.

INTRODUCTION: Previous studies have determined that spatial disorientation (SD) causes 0.5-23% of aircraft crashes, but SD-related crash and fatality rates in different aircraft types have not been systematically studied. METHODS: SD crashes for the fiscal years 1990 to 2004 and aircraft sortie numbers for all U.S. Air Force (USAF) aircraft were obtained from the USAF Safety Center. Contingency table analysis and Chi-squared tests were used to evaluate differences in SD rates. RESULTS: SD accounted for 11% of USAF crashes with an overall rate of 2.9 per million sorties and a crash fatality rate of 69%. The SD rate was higher in fighter/attack aircraft and helicopters than in training and transport aircraft. The risk of SD was increased at night with 23% of night crashes being caused by SD. But the SD rate and crash fatality rate were not higher in single-crewmember aircraft. DISCUSSION: SD risk is significantly increased in helicopters and fighter/attack aircraft and at night. The data suggest that a second crewmember does not protect against SD. Further study of specific SD scenarios could lead to focused interventions for SD prevention.

Accidents, Aviation↗
PubMed2005

Calculation of odour emissions from aircraft engines at Copenhagen Airport.

In a new approach the odour emissions from aircraft engines at Copenhagen Airport are calculated using actual fuel flow and emission measurements (one main engine and one APU: Auxiliary Power Unit), odour panel results, engine specific data and aircraft operational data for seven busy days. The calculation principle assumes a linear relation between odour and HC emissions. Using a digitalisation of the aircraft movements in the airport area, the results are depicted on grid maps, clearly reflecting aircraft operational statistics as single flights or total activity during a whole day. The results clearly reflect the short-term temporal fluctuations of the emissions of odour (and exhaust gases). Aircraft operating at low engine thrust (taxiing, queuing and landing) have a total odour emission share of almost 98%, whereas the shares for the take off/climb out phases (2%) and APU usage (0.5%) are only marginal. In most hours of the day, the largest odour emissions occur, when the total amount of fuel burned during idle is high. However, significantly higher HC emissions for one specific engine cause considerable amounts of odour emissions during limited time periods. The experimentally derived odour emission factor of 57 OU/mg HC is within the range of 23 and 110 OU/mg HC used in other airport odour studies. The distribution of odour emission results between aircraft operational phases also correspond very well with the results for these other studies. The present study uses measurement data for a representative engine. However, the uncertainties become large when the experimental data is used to estimate the odour emissions for all aircraft engines. More experimental data is needed to increase inventory accuracy, and in terms of completeness it is recommended to make odour emission estimates also for engine start and the fuelling of aircraft at Copenhagen Airport in the future.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1996

The epidemiology of aircraft fire in commuter and air taxi crashes.

BACKGROUND: Aircraft fire is recognized as an important risk factor for occupant fatality in aviation crashes, but its epidemiology has not been adequately studied. OBJECTIVE: This study examines factors related to the occurrence of aircraft fire, ignition sources, and factors influencing rescue and firefighting in commuter and air taxi crashes. METHODS: Commuter and air taxi crashes in 1983-88 that involved aircraft fire were analyzed using National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) data, including NTSB supplemental forms on fire and on rescue and firefighting. RESULTS: Aircraft fire was recorded in 17% of the 888 commuter and air taxi crashes. Factors associated with increased likelihood of fire in these crashes were non-airport location (adjusted relative risk 2.7, 95% confidence interval 1.8-4.1), twin-engine aircraft (RR 2.5, 95% Cl 1.6-3.9), and nighttime (RR 1.7, 95% Cl 1.1-2.5). Fire was more common in Beech 18's than other twin-engine airplanes. The majority (59%) of fires occurred during impact sequence, and an additional 17% occurred after the aircraft came to rest. The engine was identified as the ignition source in 59% of the crashes, followed by hot surface (18%), short circuit (9%), and sparks (9%). Fire sensing and extinguishing systems were installed in only 19% of the aircraft. Rescue and firefighting efforts were hampered most commonly by terrain (48%), weather (47%), and darkness (38%). CONCLUSIONS: Typically induced by impact and started at the engine, aircraft fire is most likely when a crash occurs at night, in a non-airport location, and in instrument meteorological conditions. These high-risk circumstances also often thwart rescue and firefighting efforts.

Accidents, Aviation↗
PubMed2002

Using virtual reality technology for aircraft visual inspection training: presence and comparison studies.

The aircraft maintenance industry is a complex system consisting of several interrelated human and machine components. Recognizing this, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has pursued human factors related research. In the maintenance arena the research has focused on the aircraft inspection process and the aircraft inspector. Training has been identified as the primary intervention strategy to improve the quality and reliability of aircraft inspection. If training is to be successful, it is critical that we provide aircraft inspectors with appropriate training tools and environment. In response to this need, the paper outlines the development of a virtual reality (VR) system for aircraft inspection training. VR has generated much excitement but little formal proof that it is useful. However, since VR interfaces are difficult and expensive to build, the computer graphics community needs to be able to predict which applications will benefit from VR. To address this important issue, this research measured the degree of immersion and presence felt by subjects in a virtual environment simulator. Specifically, it conducted two controlled studies using the VR system developed for visual inspection task of an aft-cargo bay at the VR Lab of Clemson University. Beyond assembling the visual inspection virtual environment, a significant goal of this project was to explore subjective presence as it affects task performance. The results of this study indicated that the system scored high on the issues related to the degree of presence felt by the subjects. As a next logical step, this study, then, compared VR to an existing PC-based aircraft inspection simulator. The results showed that the VR system was better and preferred over the PC-based training tool.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Chronic aircraft noise exposure, stress responses, mental health and cognitive performance in school children.

BACKGROUND: Previous research suggests that children are a high risk group vulnerable to the effects of chronic noise exposure. However, questions remain about the nature of the noise effects and the underlying causal mechanisms. This study addresses the effects of aircraft noise exposure on children around London Heathrow airport, in terms of stress responses, mental health and cognitive performance. The research also focuses on the underlying causal mechanisms contributing to the cognitive effects and potential confounding factors. METHODS: The cognitive performance and health of 340 children aged 8-11 years attending four schools in high aircraft noise areas (16 h outdoor Leq > 66 dBA) was compared with children attending four matched control schools exposed to lower levels of aircraft noise (16 h outdoor Leq < 57 dBA). Mental health and cognitive tests were group administered to the children in the schools. Salivary cortisol was measured in a subsample of children. RESULTS: Chronic aircraft noise exposure was associated with higher levels of noise annoyance and poorer reading comprehension measured by standardized scales with adjustments for age, deprivation and main language spoken. Chronic aircraft noise was not associated with mental health problems and raised cortisol secretion. The association between aircraft noise exposure and reading comprehension could not be accounted for by the mediating role of annoyance, confounding by social class, deprivation, main language or acute noise exposure. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that chronic aircraft noise exposure is associated with impaired reading comprehension and high levels of noise annoyance but not mental health problems in children.

Aircraft↗
PubMed2005

Exposure-effect relations between aircraft and road traffic noise exposure at school and reading comprehension: the RANCH project.

Transport noise is an increasingly prominent feature of the urban environment, making noise pollution an important environmental public health issue. This paper reports on the 2001-2003 RANCH project, the first cross-national epidemiologic study known to examine exposure-effect relations between aircraft and road traffic noise exposure and reading comprehension. Participants were 2,010 children aged 9-10 years from 89 schools around Amsterdam Schiphol, Madrid Barajas, and London Heathrow airports. Data from The Netherlands, Spain, and the United Kingdom were pooled and analyzed using multilevel modeling. Aircraft noise exposure at school was linearly associated with impaired reading comprehension; the association was maintained after adjustment for socioeconomic variables (beta = -0.008, p = 0.012), aircraft noise annoyance, and other cognitive abilities (episodic memory, working memory, and sustained attention). Aircraft noise exposure at home was highly correlated with aircraft noise exposure at school and demonstrated a similar linear association with impaired reading comprehension. Road traffic noise exposure at school was not associated with reading comprehension in either the absence or the presence of aircraft noise (beta = 0.003, p = 0.509; beta = 0.002, p = 0.540, respectively). Findings were consistent across the three countries, which varied with respect to a range of socioeconomic and environmental variables, thus offering robust evidence of a direct exposure-effect relation between aircraft noise and reading comprehension.

Aircraft↗
PubMed2004

Aircraft noise around a large international airport and its impact on general health and medication use.

AIMS: To assess the prevalence of general health status, use of sleep medication, and use of medication for cardiovascular diseases, and to study their relation to aircraft noise exposure. METHODS: These health indicators were measured by a cross-sectional survey among 11 812 respondents living within a radius of 25 km around Schiphol airport (Amsterdam). RESULTS: Adjusted odds ratios ranged from 1.02 to 2.34 per 10 dB(A) increase in L(den). The associations were statistically significant for all indicators, except for use of prescribed sleep medication or sedatives and frequent use of this medication. None of the health indicators were associated with aircraft noise exposure during the night, but use of non-prescribed sleep medication or sedatives was associated with aircraft noise exposure during the late evening (OR = 1.72). Vitality related health complaints such as tiredness and headache were associated with aircraft noise, whereas most other physical complaints were not. Odds ratios for the vitality related complaints ranged from 1.16 to 1.47 per 10 dB(A) increase in L(den). A small fraction of the prevalence of poor self rated health (0.13), medication for cardiovascular diseases or increased blood pressure (0.08), and sleep medication or sedatives (0.22) could be attributed to aircraft noise. Although the attributable fraction was highest in the governmentally noise regulated area, aircraft noise had more impact in the non-regulated area, due to the larger population. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest associations between community exposure to aircraft noise and the health indicators poor general health status, use of sleep medication, and use of medication for cardiovascular diseases.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Anaerobic co-digestion of aircraft deicing fluid and municipal wastewater sludge.

At many airports, aircraft deicing fluid and precipitation mix, becoming aircraft deicing runoff having a 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) of 10(2) to 10(6) mg/L. Publicly owned treatment works can be used for aerobic biological treatment; however, it may be more economical to use anaerobic digesters to codigest a mixture of aircraft deicing fluid and sludge. The objectives of this investigation were to determine benefits and appropriate propylene glycol aircraft deicing fluid loadings to anaerobic codigesters. Results demonstrate aircraft deicing fluid can be successfully codigested to produce methane; supernatant BOD5 and Kjeldahl nitrogen concentration were not higher in codigesters compared to a conventional digester. Aircraft deicing fluid loadings as high as 1.6 g chemical oxygen demand (COD)/L x d were sustainable in codigesters, whereas system fed only aircraft deicing fluid with nutrients and alkalinity achieved a loading of 0.65 g COD/L x d. The sludge used increased digester alkalinity and provided nitrogen, iron, nickel, cobalt, and biomass required for methanogenesis. The deicer provides organics for increased methane production.

Aircraft↗
PubMed2000

Air quality and ocular discomfort aboard commercial aircraft.

BACKGROUND: Aircraft cabin air quality has been a subject of recent public health interest. Aircraft environments are designed according to standards to ensure the comfort and well-being of the occupants. The upper and lower limits of humidity set by ASHRAE standards are based on the maintenance of acceptable thermal conditions established solely on comfort considerations, including thermal sensation, skin wetness, skin dryness, dry eyes and ocular discomfort. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of air (carbon dioxide level, relative humidity, and temperature) aboard commercial aircraft on ocular discomfort and dry eye of aircraft personnel and passengers. METHODS: Measurements of indoor air quality were performed in 15 different aircraft at different times and altitudes. Forty-two measurements of carbon dioxide, temperature, and humidity were performed with portable air samplers every 5 minutes. Passenger loads did not exceed 137 passengers. RESULTS: Thermal comfort rarely met ASHRAE standards. Low humidity levels and high carbon dioxide levels were found on the Airbus 320. The DC-9 had the highest humidity level and the Boeing-767 had the lowest carbon dioxide level. CONCLUSIONS: Air quality was poorest on the Airbus 320 aircraft. This poor level of air quality may cause intolerance to contact lenses, dry eyes, and may be a health hazard to both passengers and crew members. Improved ventilation and aircraft cabin micro-environments need to be made for the health and comfort of the occupants.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMed2003

Case-control study of risk factors for fatal and non-fatal injury in crashes of civil aircraft.

BACKGROUND: There have been few studies of the risk factors for fatal injury in air crashes, and none of risk factors for all serious injury (fatal and non-fatal). OBJECTIVE: To identify the potentially modifiable risk factors for fatal and non-fatal injury in civil aircraft crashes in New Zealand. METHODS: We analyzed records from all reported civil aircraft crashes in New Zealand (1988-1994). Air crash data from the official databases were merged with nationwide injury records and information obtained from coroners' files. Pilots-in-command who were fatally injured were compared with pilots-in-command who were not fatally injured using 50 variables covering pilot, aircraft, environmental, and operational characteristics. A second analysis compared pilots-in-command who were seriously injured (either fatally or non-fatally) with those who were involved in a crash but not hospitalized with an injury. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were then conducted to estimate the odds associated with each of the factors identified by the above comparisons. RESULTS: The most significant risk factors for fatal and serious injury were aerobatic flight, post-crash fire, not having a certificate of airworthiness, and off-airport location. Environmental characteristics including terrain type, wind, rain, and elevation of the crash site were identified as risk factors, as was being under instruction. Flying a twin-engine aircraft was a risk factor for fatal injury, while piloting a microlight aircraft was a risk factor for all serious injury. CONCLUSION: Environmental and operational factors, rather than pilot or aircraft characteristics, are the key determinants of the injury outcome of civil aircraft crashes.

Accidents, Aviation↗
PubMed1979

Field and laboratory studies of moving and temporally variable noise sources (aircraft); perception of location, movement, and direction.

The conditions were examined under which more valid and reliable estimates could be made of the effects of aircraft noise on people. In Exper. 1, 12 Ss in 2 different houses directly under the flight path of a major airport (JFK) indicated 1 of 12 possible flight paths (4 directly overhead and 8 to one side) for each of 3 jet aircraft flyovers: 3% of cases in House A and 56% in House B (which had open windows) were correctly identified. Despite judgment inaccuracy, Ss were more than moderately certain of the correctness of their judgments. In Exper. II. Ss either inside or outside of 2 houses in Wallops Station, Virginia, indicated on diagrams the direction of flyovers. Each of 4 aircraft (Boeing 737, C-54, UE-1 helicopter, Queenaire) made 8 flyovers directly over the houses and 8 to one side. Windows were either open or closed. All flyovers and conditions were counterbalanced. All sound sources under all conditions were usually judged to be overhead and moving, but for Ss indoors with windows closed the to-the-side flyovers were judged to be off to the side in 24% of cases. Outdoor Ss reported correct direction in 75% of cases while indoor Ss were correct in only 25% (windows open) or 18% (windows closed). Judgments "to the side" were significantly better (p = less than .02) with windows open vs closed, while with windows closed judgments were significantly better (p = less than .05) for flyovers overhead vs to the side. In Exper. III, Ss localized in azimuth and in the vertical plane recorded noises (10 1-oct noise bands of CF = 28.12 c/s - 14.4kc/s, spoken voice, and jet aircraft takeoffs and landings), presented through 1, 2, or 4 floor-level loudspeakers at each corner of a simulated living room (4.2 x 5.4m)built inside an IAC soundproof room. Aircraft noises presented by 4 loudspeakers were localized as "directly" overhead 80% of the time and "generally overhead" about 90% of the time; other sounds were so localized about 50% and 75% of the time respectively. Through only 2 loudspeakers, aircraft noises were localized 25-36 degrees above horizontal. Implications are that acoustic realism can be achieved in simulated aircraft overflights and that future laboratory noise-effects research should incorporate the required conditions.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Crashes of commuter aircraft and air taxis. What determines pilot survival?

Pilots have been recognized as an occupational group having very high work-related death rates. Commuter aircraft and air taxis are far more likely to be involved in fatal crashes than are larger airplanes. To examine the factors related to pilot survival in commuter aircraft and air taxi crashes, we analyzed National Transportation Safety Board data for the years 1983 to 1988. Case fatality rates were calculated for the pilots-in-command and odds ratios were estimated from a multivariate logistic regression model for variables related to pilots, aircraft, and circumstances. During the 6-year period, 536 people were killed and 744 injured in 888 commuter aircraft and air taxi crashes. The pilot case fatality rate was 20%. The most important determinants of pilot fatality were postcrash fire (odds ratio [OR] 8.2), off-airport location (OR 8.1), bad weather (OR 4.3), and nonuse of shoulder restraints (OR 3.7); all were significant at P < .01. Crash survival could be enhanced by more crashworthy fuel systems, aircraft seats, and use of restraint systems in commuter aircraft and air taxis. The value of shoulder restraints for pilots in these aircraft is confirmed and their use should be vigorously promoted.

Accidents, Aviation↗
PubMed1998

Female voice communications in high levels of aircraft cockpit noises--Part I: spectra, levels, and microphones.

HYPOTHESIS: Female produced speech, although more intelligible than male speech in some noise spectra, may be more vulnerable to degradation by high levels of some military aircraft cockpit noises. The acoustic features of female speech are higher in frequency, lower in power, and appear more susceptible than male speech to masking by some of these military noises. Current military aircraft voice communication systems were optimized for the male voice and may not adequately accommodate the female voice in these high level noises. METHODS: This applied study investigated the intelligibility of female and male speech produced in the noise spectra of four military aircraft cockpits at levels ranging from 95 dB to 115 dB. The experimental subjects used standard flight helmets and headsets, noise-canceling microphones, and military aircraft voice communications systems during the measurements. RESULTS: The intelligibility of female speech was lower than that of male speech for all experimental conditions; however, differences were small and insignificant except at the highest levels of the cockpit noises. Intelligibility for both genders varied with aircraft noise spectrum and level. Speech intelligibility of both genders was acceptable during normal cruise noises of all four aircraft, but improvements are required in the higher levels of noise created during aircraft maximum operating conditions. CONCLUSIONS: The intelligibility of female speech was unacceptable at the highest measured noise level of 115 dB and may constitute a problem for other military aviators. The intelligibility degradation due to the noise can be neutralized by use of an available, improved noise-canceling microphone, by the application of current active noise reduction technology to the personal communication equipment, and by the development of a voice communications system to accommodate the speech produced by both female and male aviators.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Case-control study of risk factors for fatal and non-fatal injury in crashes of rotary-wing aircraft.

INTRODUCTION: There have been few studies of the risk factors for fatal injury in air crashes of rotary-wing aircraft, and none of risk factors for all serious injury (fatal and non-fatal) in these aircraft. The aim of the study was to identify the potentially modifiable risk factors for injury in civil rotary-wing aircraft crashes in New Zealand. METHOD: We analyzed records from all reported civil rotary-wing aircraft crashes in New Zealand between 1988 and 1994. Air crash data from the official databases were merged with nationwide injury records and information obtained from Coroner's files. Crashes where the pilot-in-command was fatally injured were compared with crashes where the pilot-in-command was not fatally injured on 50 variables, covering pilot, aircraft, environmental, and operational characteristics. A second analysis compared crashes where the pilot-in-command was seriously injured (either fatally or non-fatally) with crashes where the pilot-in-command was not hospitalized with an injury. A series of multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to estimate the odds associated with each of the factors identified by the univariate analyses. RESULTS: The most significant risk factors for all serious injury were: (a) not obtaining a weather briefing, (b) off-airport location of the crash site, (c) flights carried out for air transport purposes, and (d) non-solo flights. Other risk factors, significant for fatal injury only, included post-crash fire and the nature of the crash terrain. Factors within the control of the pilot, environmental, and flight characteristics are the key determinants of the injury outcome of civil rotary-wing aircraft crashes.

Accidents, Aviation↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Aircraft and road traffic noise and children's cognition and health: a cross-national study.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to environmental stressors can impair children's health and their cognitive development. The effects of air pollution, lead, and chemicals have been studied, but there has been less emphasis on the effects of noise. Our aim, therefore, was to assess the effect of exposure to aircraft and road traffic noise on cognitive performance and health in children. METHODS: We did a cross-national, cross-sectional study in which we assessed 2844 of 3207 children aged 9-10 years who were attending 89 schools of 77 approached in the Netherlands, 27 in Spain, and 30 in the UK located in local authority areas around three major airports. We selected children by extent of exposure to external aircraft and road traffic noise at school as predicted from noise contour maps, modelling, and on-site measurements, and matched schools within countries for socioeconomic status. We measured cognitive and health outcomes with standardised tests and questionnaires administered in the classroom. We also used a questionnaire to obtain information from parents about socioeconomic status, their education, and ethnic origin. FINDINGS: We identified linear exposure-effect associations between exposure to chronic aircraft noise and impairment of reading comprehension (p=0.0097) and recognition memory (p=0.0141), and a non-linear association with annoyance (p<0.0001) maintained after adjustment for mother's education, socioeconomic status, longstanding illness, and extent of classroom insulation against noise. Exposure to road traffic noise was linearly associated with increases in episodic memory (conceptual recall: p=0.0066; information recall: p=0.0489), but also with annoyance (p=0.0047). Neither aircraft noise nor traffic noise affected sustained attention, self-reported health, or overall mental health. INTERPRETATION: Our findings indicate that a chronic environmental stressor-aircraft noise-could impair cognitive development in children, specifically reading comprehension. Schools exposed to high levels of aircraft noise are not healthy educational environments.

Aircraft↗