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PubMed2004

An XML standard for the dissemination of annotated 2D gel electrophoresis data complemented with mass spectrometry results.

BACKGROUND: Many proteomics initiatives require a seamless bioinformatics integration of a range of analytical steps between sample collection and systems modeling immediately assessable to the participants involved in the process. Proteomics profiling by 2D gel electrophoresis to the putative identification of differentially expressed proteins by comparison of mass spectrometry results with reference databases, includes many components of sample processing, not just analysis and interpretation, are regularly revisited and updated. In order for such updates and dissemination of data, a suitable data structure is needed. However, there are no such data structures currently available for the storing of data for multiple gels generated through a single proteomic experiments in a single XML file. This paper proposes a data structure based on XML standards to fill the void that exists between data generated by proteomics experiments and storing of data. RESULTS: In order to address the resulting procedural fluidity we have adopted and implemented a data model centered on the concept of annotated gel (AG) as the format for delivery and management of 2D Gel electrophoresis results. An eXtensible Markup Language (XML) schema is proposed to manage, analyze and disseminate annotated 2D Gel electrophoresis results. The structure of AG objects is formally represented using XML, resulting in the definition of the AGML syntax presented here. CONCLUSION: The proposed schema accommodates data on the electrophoresis results as well as the mass-spectrometry analysis of selected gel spots. A web-based software library is being developed to handle data storage, analysis and graphic representation. Computational tools described will be made available at http://bioinformatics.musc.edu/agml. Our development of AGML provides a simple data structure for storing 2D gel electrophoresis data.

Computational Biology↗
PubMed2003

Evolving strategies for the incorporation of bioinformatics within the undergraduate cell biology curriculum.

Recent advances in genomics and structural biology have resulted in an unprecedented increase in biological data available from Internet-accessible databases. In order to help students effectively use this vast repository of information, undergraduate biology students at Drake University were introduced to bioinformatics software and databases in three courses, beginning with an introductory course in cell biology. The exercises and projects that were used to help students develop literacy in bioinformatics are described. In a recently offered course in bioinformatics, students developed their own simple sequence analysis tool using the Perl programming language. These experiences are described from the point of view of the instructor as well as the students. A preliminary assessment has been made of the degree to which students had developed a working knowledge of bioinformatics concepts and methods. Finally, some conclusions have been drawn from these courses that may be helpful to instructors wishing to introduce bioinformatics within the undergraduate biology curriculum.

Biology↗
PubMed2002

Recursive domains in proteins.

The domain is a fundamental unit of protein structure. Numerous studies have analyzed folding patterns in protein domains of known structure to gain insight into the underlying protein folding process. Are such patterns a haphazard assortment or are they similar to sentences in a language, which can be generated by an underlying grammar? Specifically, can a small number of intuitively sensible rules generate a large class of folds, including feasible new folds? In this paper, we explore the extent to which four simple rules can generate the known all-beta folds, using tools from graph theory. As a control, an exhaustive set of beta-sandwiches was tested and found to be largely incompatible with such a grammar. The existence of a protein grammar has potential implications for both the mechanism of folding and the evolution of domains.

Dimerization↗
PubMed2003

Semantic similarity measures as tools for exploring the gene ontology.

Many bioinformatics resources hold data in the form of sequences. Often this sequence data is associated with a large amount of annotation. In many cases this data has been hard to model, and has been represented as scientific natural language, which is not readily computationally amenable. The development of the Gene Ontology provides us with a more accessible representation of some of this data. However it is not clear how this data can best be searched, or queried. Recently we have adapted information content based measures for use with the Gene Ontology (GO). In this paper we present detailed investigation of the properties of these measures, and examine various properties of GO, which may have implications for its future design.

Classification↗
PubMed2005

Suregene, a scalable system for automated term disambiguation of gene and protein names.

Researchers, hindered by a lack of standard gene and protein-naming conventions, endure long, sometimes fruitless, literature searches. A system that is able to automatically assign gene names to their LocusLink ID (LLID) in previously unseen MEDLINE abstracts is described. The system is based on supervised learning and builds a model for each LLID. The training sets for all LLIDs are extracted automatically from MEDLINE references in the LocusLink and SwissProt databases. A validation was done of the performance for all 20,546 human genes with LLIDs. Of these, 7344 produced good quality models (F-measure >0.7, nearly 60% of which were >0.9) and 13,202 did not, mainly due to insufficient numbers of known document references. A hand validation of MEDLINE documents for a set of 66 genes agreed well with the system's internal accuracy assessment. It is concluded that it is possible to achieve high quality gene disambiguation using scaleable automated techniques.

Algorithms↗
PubMed2005

Scalable molecular dynamics with NAMD.

NAMD is a parallel molecular dynamics code designed for high-performance simulation of large biomolecular systems. NAMD scales to hundreds of processors on high-end parallel platforms, as well as tens of processors on low-cost commodity clusters, and also runs on individual desktop and laptop computers. NAMD works with AMBER and CHARMM potential functions, parameters, and file formats. This article, directed to novices as well as experts, first introduces concepts and methods used in the NAMD program, describing the classical molecular dynamics force field, equations of motion, and integration methods along with the efficient electrostatics evaluation algorithms employed and temperature and pressure controls used. Features for steering the simulation across barriers and for calculating both alchemical and conformational free energy differences are presented. The motivations for and a roadmap to the internal design of NAMD, implemented in C++ and based on Charm++ parallel objects, are outlined. The factors affecting the serial and parallel performance of a simulation are discussed. Finally, typical NAMD use is illustrated with representative applications to a small, a medium, and a large biomolecular system, highlighting particular features of NAMD, for example, the Tcl scripting language. The article also provides a list of the key features of NAMD and discusses the benefits of combining NAMD with the molecular graphics/sequence analysis software VMD and the grid computing/collaboratory software BioCoRE. NAMD is distributed free of charge with source code at www.ks.uiuc.edu.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1990

Watching G proteins at work.

It has been known for over a century that rod photoreceptors in the living retina contract and swell in response to light. Although it is still not known whether this structural light-response is of any functional significance, it has recently been possible to correlate the underlying molecular processes with the activation and deactivation of the photoreceptor G protein, transducin. The technique of light-scattering allows the monitoring of minute changes in cell dimensions, and using this non-invasive experimental approach it can be shown that certain properties of the coupling between transducin and rhodopsin are different in a structurally well-preserved system as compared with rod material used for conventional biochemical studies. Thus, not unlike a psychiatrist, who often learns more about a patient's 'interiors' by observing the body language than by direct interrogation, a biochemist, studying the 'body language' of a cell, may extract information about delicate 'cell interior processes' that would be perturbed by more direct experimental approaches.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Gene Ontology friendly biclustering of expression profiles.

The soundness of clustering in the analysis of gene expression profiles and gene function prediction is based on the hypothesis that genes with similar expression profiles may imply strong correlations with their functions in the biological activities. Gene Ontology (GO) has become a well accepted standard in organizing gene function categories. Different gene function categories in GO can have very sophisticated relationships, such as 'part of' and 'overlapping'. Until now, no clustering algorithm can generate gene clusters within which the relationships can naturally reflect those of gene function categories in the GO hierarchy. The failure in resembling the relationships may reduce the confidence of clustering in gene function prediction. In this paper, we present a new clustering technique, Smart Hierarchical Tendency Preserving clustering (SHTP-clustering), based on a bicluster model, Tendency Preserving cluster (TP-Cluster). By directly incorporating Gene Ontology information into the clustering process, the SHTP-clustering algorithm yields a TP-cluster tree within which any subtree can be well mapped to a part of the GO hierarchy. Our experiments on yeast cell cycle data demonstrate that this method is efficient and effective in generating the biological relevant TP-Clusters.

Algorithms↗
PubMed2004

An object model and database for functional genomics.

MOTIVATION: Large-scale functional genomics analysis is now feasible and presents significant challenges in data analysis, storage and querying. Data standards are required to enable the development of public data repositories and to improve data sharing. There is an established data format for microarrays (microarray gene expression markup language, MAGE-ML) and a draft standard for proteomics (PEDRo). We believe that all types of functional genomics experiments should be annotated in a consistent manner, and we hope to open up new ways of comparing multiple datasets used in functional genomics. RESULTS: We have created a functional genomics experiment object model (FGE-OM), developed from the microarray model, MAGE-OM and two models for proteomics, PEDRo and our own model (Gla-PSI-Glasgow Proposal for the Proteomics Standards Initiative). FGE-OM comprises three namespaces representing (i) the parts of the model common to all functional genomics experiments; (ii) microarray-specific components; and (iii) proteomics-specific components. We believe that FGE-OM should initiate discussion about the contents and structure of the next version of MAGE and the future of proteomics standards. A prototype database called RNA And Protein Abundance Database (RAPAD), based on FGE-OM, has been implemented and populated with data from microbial pathogenesis. AVAILABILITY: FGE-OM and the RAPAD schema are available from http://www.gusdb.org/fge.html, along with a set of more detailed diagrams. RAPAD can be accessed by registration at the site.

Abstracting and Indexing↗
PubMed2004

AZuRE, a scalable system for automated term disambiguation of gene and protein names.

Researchers, hindered by a lack of standard gene and protein-naming conventions, endure long, sometimes fruitless, literature searches. A system is described which is able to automatically assign gene names to their LocusLink ID (LLID) in previously unseen MEDLINE abstracts. The system is based on supervised learning and builds a model for each LLID. The training sets for all LLIDs are extracted automatically from MEDLINE references in the LocusLink and SwissProt databases. A validation was done of the performance for all 20,546 human genes with LLIDs. Of these, 7,344 produced good quality models (F-measure > 0.7, nearly 60% of which were > 0.9) and 13,202 did not, mainly due to insufficient numbers of known document references. A hand validation of MEDLINE documents for a set of 66 genes agreed well with the system's internal accuracy assessment. It is concluded that it is possible to achieve high quality gene disambiguation using scaleable automated techniques.

Databases, Protein↗
PubMed2026

Pharmacological therapies for the prevention of fractures in men.

RATIONALE: Pharmacological therapies for fracture prevention usually target osteoporosis, a skeletal disorder characterised by compromised bone mass or quality (or both). As most participants in osteoporosis trials are women, a review of pharmacological therapies for fracture prevention in men was warranted. OBJECTIVES: To determine the benefits and harms of bisphosphonates, parathyroid (PTH) or parathyroid-related protein (PTHrP) analogues, denosumab, and romosozumab therapy for the prevention of fractures in men. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, and two trial registries (ClinicalTrials.gov and WHO ICTRP) until 14 October 2025, with no restrictions on date or language of publication. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: We included randomised controlled trials that compared bisphosphonates, PTH or PTHrP analogues, denosumab, or romosozumab (alone or with calcium or vitamin D, or both) with placebo, other drugs, or non-pharmacological therapies in men aged 50 years or older. Our primary comparison was bisphosphonates versus placebo. OUTCOMES: Critical outcomes were incidence of hip fractures, symptomatic vertebral fractures, other (not hip or vertebral) fractures, disability, participants with adverse events, study withdrawals due to adverse events, and participants with serious adverse events. Our primary time point was the final time point reported in the trials. RISK OF BIAS: We used Cochrane's RoB 2 tool to assess risk of bias. SYNTHESIS METHODS: We used a random-effects model for meta-analysis employing the Mantel-Haenszel approach, and the DerSimonian and Laird method to estimate between-trial variance. We assessed the certainty of evidence using GRADE. INCLUDED STUDIES: Seventeen trials (4132 participants) met our inclusion criteria. The average age of participants ranged from 52 to 73 years. Twelve trials used a placebo comparator versus bisphosphonate (7 trials, 2548 participants), PTH or PTHrP analogues (4 trials, 569 participants), denosumab (1 trial, 240 participants), and romosozumab (1 trial, 244 participants). For the other planned comparisons, a bisphosphonate was compared to vitamin D/vitamin D analogues (2 trials, 434 participants), to calcitonin (1 trial, 32 participants), to PTH or PTHrP analogues (1 trial, 19 participants), or to another bisphosphonate (1 trial, 301 participants), and one trial compared a bisphosphonate plus calcium to calcium tablets alone (46 participants). SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS: Placebo-controlled trials were largely susceptible to bias in selection of the reported result (83%), while most trials without a placebo control were also susceptible to bias arising from the randomisation process (100%) and in measurement of the outcome (80%). We are very uncertain about the effect of bisphosphonates on the incidence of hip fractures, symptomatic vertebral fractures, or other (non-hip non-vertebral) fractures compared to placebo at the final follow-up (up to two years). We downgraded the certainty of evidence once for risk of bias, twice for imprecision (very low event rates), and once for suspected publication bias. The certainty of evidence for incidence of other fractures was further downgraded for indirectness, as it was unclear if hip fractures were also included in the outcome. At up to two years, 2/875 participants (2 per 1000) in the bisphosphonate group reported hip fractures compared with 2/760 (3 per 1000) in the placebo group (risk ratio (RR) 0.73, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.06 to 8.51; I² = 36%; 4 trials, 1635 participants); 5/1021 (4/1000) participants in the bisphosphonate group had a symptomatic vertebral fracture compared to 7/855 (8/1000) participants in the placebo group (RR 0.49, 95% CI 0.14 to 1.74; I² = 0%; 5 trials, 1876 participants); 25/1130 participants (16/1000) in the bisphosphonate group reported other (non-hip non-vertebral) fractures compared to 19/913 participants (21/1000) in the placebo group (RR 0.78, 95% CI 0.42 to 1.45; I² = 0%; 6 trials, 2043 participants). Bisphosphonates probably do not increase the risk of adverse events: 1024/1374 participants (746/1000) receiving bisphosphonates reported adverse events compared to 826/1174 participants (704/1000) receiving placebo (RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.93 to 1.19; I² = 75%; 7 trials, 2548 participants; moderate-certainty evidence) or serious adverse events: 329/1329 participants (272/1000) receiving bisphosphonate reported serious adverse events compared to 323/1128 participants (286/1000) receiving placebo (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.08; I² = 0%; 6 trials, 2457 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). We downgraded the certainty of evidence once due to potential bias for adverse events and serious adverse events. We are very uncertain if bisphosphonates result in more withdrawals due to adverse events: 41/1374 participants (25/1000) in the bisphosphonate group withdrew due to adverse events compared with 43/1174 participants (37/1000) in the placebo group (RR 0.68, 95% CI 0.39 to 1.18; I² = 37%; 7 trials, 2548 participants; very low-certainty evidence). We downgraded the certainty of evidence once for risk of bias, once for indirectness, and once for imprecision. No trial reported disability. We are very uncertain about the effects of PTH or PTHrP analogues, denosumab, or romosozumab compared to placebo on fracture outcomes. We are very uncertain about the effects of PTH/PTHrP analogues on total adverse events, withdrawals due to adverse events, and serious adverse events. Denosumab may not increase the risk of adverse events or serious adverse events compared to placebo, while the evidence for withdrawals due to adverse events is very uncertain. Romosozumab probably does not increase the risk of adverse events and may not increase the risk of serious adverse events or result in more withdrawals due to adverse events. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: We are very uncertain about the effects of bisphosphonates compared to placebo on the incidence of hip fractures, symptomatic vertebral fractures, or other (non-hip non-vertebral) fractures in men at up to two years of use. Bisphosphonates probably do not increase the risk of adverse events or serious adverse events, and we are very uncertain if they result in more withdrawals due to adverse events. We downgraded the certainty of evidence for indirectness, imprecision (low event rate), and serious risk of bias in selection of the reported result, as it was unclear if all studies fully reported every fracture. We found similar results for PTH or PTHrP analogues, denosumab, or romosozumab versus placebo. Larger, longer placebo-controlled studies are needed to determine whether pharmacological therapies are beneficial for reducing fractures in men. FUNDING: This Cochrane review had no dedicated funding. REGISTRATION: Protocol (2021): https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD014707.

Humans↗
PubMed2003

A systematic approach to modeling, capturing, and disseminating proteomics experimental data.

Both the generation and the analysis of proteome data are becoming increasingly widespread, and the field of proteomics is moving incrementally toward high-throughput approaches. Techniques are also increasing in complexity as the relevant technologies evolve. A standard representation of both the methods used and the data generated in proteomics experiments, analogous to that of the MIAME (minimum information about a microarray experiment) guidelines for transcriptomics, and the associated MAGE (microarray gene expression) object model and XML (extensible markup language) implementation, has yet to emerge. This hinders the handling, exchange, and dissemination of proteomics data. Here, we present a UML (unified modeling language) approach to proteomics experimental data, describe XML and SQL (structured query language) implementations of that model, and discuss capture, storage, and dissemination strategies. These make explicit what data might be most usefully captured about proteomics experiments and provide complementary routes toward the implementation of a proteome repository.

Database Management Systems↗
PubMed2004

Genome Properties: a system for the investigation of prokaryotic genetic content for microbiology, genome annotation and comparative genomics.

MOTIVATION: The presence or absence of metabolic pathways and structures provide a context that makes protein annotation far more reliable. Compiling such information across microbial genomes improves the functional classification of proteins and provides a valuable resource for comparative genomics. RESULTS: We have created a Genome Properties system to present key aspects of prokaryotic biology using standardized computational methods and controlled vocabularies. Properties reflect gene content, phenotype, phylogeny and computational analyses. The results of searches using hidden Markov models allow many properties to be deduced automatically, especially for families of proteins (equivalogs) conserved in function since their last common ancestor. Additional properties are derived from curation, published reports and other forms of evidence. Genome Properties system was applied to 156 complete prokaryotic genomes, and is easily mined to find differences between species, correlations between metabolic features and families of uncharacterized proteins, or relationships among properties. AVAILABILITY: Genome Properties can be found at http://www.tigr.org/Genome_Properties SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: http://www.tigr.org/tigr-scripts/CMR2/genome_properties_references.spl.

Chromosome Mapping↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Is autism due to brain desynchronization?

The hypothesis is presented that a disruption in brain synchronization contributes to autism by destroying the coherence of brain rhythms and slowing overall cognitive processing speed. Particular focus is on the inferior olive, a precerebellar structure that is reliably disrupted in autism and which normally generates a coherent 5-13 Hz rhythmic output. New electrophysiological data reveal that the continuity of the rhythmical oscillation in membrane potential generated by inferior olive neurons requires the formation of neuronal assemblies by the connexin36 protein that mediates electrical synapses and promotes neuronal synchrony. An experiment with classical eyeblink conditioning is presented to demonstrate that the inferior olive is necessary to learn about sequences of stimuli presented at intervals in the range of 250-500 ms, but not at 700 ms, revealing that a disruption of the inferior olive slows stimulus processing speed on the time scale that is lost in autistic children. A model is presented in which the voltage oscillation generated by populations of electrically synchronized inferior olivary neurons permits the utilization of sequences of stimuli given at, or faster than, 2 per second. It is expected that the disturbance in inferior olive structure in autism disrupts the ability of inferior olive neurons to become electrically synchronized and to generate coherent rhythmic output, thereby impairing the ability to use rapid sequences of cues for the development of normal language skill. Future directions to test the hypothesis are presented.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

A relational database of protein structures designed for flexible enquiries about conformation.

A relational database of protein structure has been developed to enable rapid and flexible enquiries about the occurrence of many aspects of protein architecture. The coordinates of 294 proteins from the Brookhaven Data Bank have been processed by standard computer programs to generate many additional terms that quantify aspects of protein structure. These terms include solvent accessibility, main-chain and side-chain dihedral angles, and secondary structure. In a relational database, the information is stored in tables with columns holding the different terms and rows holding the different entries for the terms. The different relational base tables store the information about the protein coordinate set, the different chains in the protein, the amino acid residues and ligands, the atomic coordinates, the salt bridges, the hydrogen bonds, the disulphide bridges and the close tertiary contacts. The database was established under ORACLE management system. Enquiries are constructed in ORACLE using SQL (structured query language) which is simple to use and alleviates the need for extensive computer programs. A single table can be searched for entries that meet various criteria, e.g. all protein solved to better than a given resolution. The power of the database occurs when several tables, or the entries in a single table, are cross-correlated. For example the dihedral angles of proline in the fourth position in an alpha-helix in high resolution structures can be rapidly obtained. The structural database provides a powerful tool to obtain empirical rules about protein conformation. This database of protein structures is part of a joint project between Birkbeck College and Leeds University to establish an integrated data resource of protein sequences and structures (ISIS) that encodes the complex patterns of residues and coordinates that define protein conformation. The entire data resource (ISIS) will provide a system to guide all areas of protein modelling including structure prediction, site-directed mutagenesis and de novo protein design. The availability of ISIS is described in the paper.

Computer Simulation↗
PubMed1993

Feature expressions: creating and manipulating sequence datasets.

Annotation of features, such as introns, exons and protein coding regions in GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ entries is now standardized through use of the Features Table (FT) language. The essence of the FT language is described by the relation 'expression-->sequence', meaning that each FT expression evaluates to a sequence. For example, the expression M74750:1..50 evaluates to the first 50 bases of the sequence with accession number M74750. Because FT is intrinsic to the database definition, it can serve as a software- and platform-independent lingua franca for sequence manipulation. The XYLEM package makes it possible to create and manipulate sequence datasets using FT expressions. FEATURES is a program that resolves FT expressions into their corresponding sequences. Annotated features can be retrieved either by feature key or by expression. Even unannotated portions of a sequence can be retrieved by user-generated FT expressions. Applications of the FT language include retrieval of subsequences from large sequence entries, generation of chromosome models or artificial DNA constructs, and representation of restriction maps or mutants.

Base Sequence↗
PubMed1996

The effect of dietary protein restriction on the progression of diabetic and nondiabetic renal diseases: a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Dietary protein has long been thought to play a role in the progression of chronic renal disease, but clinical trials to date have not consistently shown that dietary protein restriction is beneficial. PURPOSE: To use meta-analysis to assess the efficacy of dietary protein restriction in previously published studies of diabetic and nondiabetic renal diseases, including the recently completed Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study. DATA SOURCES: The English-language medical literature published from January 1966 through December 1994 was searched for studies examining the effect of low-protein diets in humans with chronic renal disease. A total of 1413 patients in five studies on nondiabetic renal disease (mean length of follow-up, 18 to 36 months) and 108 patients in five studies of type I diabetes mellitus (mean length of follow-up, 9 to 35 months) were included. STUDY SELECTION: Randomized, controlled studies were selected for nondiabetic renal disease; randomized, controlled studies or time-controlled studies with nonrandomized crossover design were selected for diabetic nephropathy. DATA EXTRACTION: Data in tables, figures, or text were independently extracted by two of the authors. DATA SYNTHESIS: The relative risk for progression of renal disease in patients receiving a low-protein diet compared with patients receiving a usual-protein diet was calculated by using a random-effects model. In five studies of nondiabetic renal disease, a low-protein diet significantly reduced the risk for renal failure or death (relative risk, 0.67 [95% Cl, 0.50 to 0.89]). In five studies of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, a low-protein diet significantly slowed the increase in urinary albumin level or the decline in glomerular filtration rate or creatinine clearance (relative risk, 0.56 [Cl, 0.40 to 0.77]). Tests for heterogeneity showed no significant differences in relative risk among studies of either diabetic or nondiabetic renal disease. No significant differences were seen between diet groups in pooled mean arterial blood pressure (diabetic and nondiabetic patients) or glycosylated hemoglobin level (diabetic patients only). CONCLUSION: Dietary protein restriction effectively slows the progression of both diabetic and nondiabetic renal diseases.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Apoptosis and necrosis: a review for surgeons.

BACKGROUND: Orderly cell death, termed apoptosis, features a morphology that is distinct from necrotic, or accidental, cell death. As the body of literature on apoptotic cell death grows, it is difficult for practicing surgeons to stay current with the involved mechanisms and their biologic significance. METHODS: A MEDLINE/PubMed literature search was conducted, followed by manual crossreferencing, to identify relevant articles published in the English language between 1972 and 2004. RESULTS: Apoptosis is now known to be involved in numerous disease states. Ischemia-reperfusion injury and acute pancreatitis are but two surgical entities in which the balance of apoptotic and necrotic cell death has a profound effect on clinical outcome. Similarly, the timing and extent of apoptosis in immune cells are important factors that determine the outcome of septic patients. CONCLUSIONS: As already demonstrated in animal models, further research in this field will target opportunities for therapeutic intervention, making it increasingly important for clinicians to be familiar with apoptosis and necrosis, and their roles in normal and pathologic states.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗