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PubMed1988

An update on diarrhoeal diseases in Malaysia.

Analysis of diarrhoeal disease patterns in Malaysia from 1981-1986 suggested that infectious hepatitis ranked as the most predominant diarrhoeal disease followed by typhoid, food poisoning, dysentery and cholera. Although these five major food and water-borne diseases are still endemic in this country, diarrhoeal diseases per se no longer become an important public health problem in Malaysia. Enforcement of the cholera control program brought the incidence of the disease to a minimal. Unfortunately, this fatal form of diarrhoeal disease caused the greatest mortality compared to the others. Seasonal influence also played a part in controlling the occurrence of the disease. There was a preponderance of diarrhoeal diseases during the rainy season implicating contaminated water as a source of transmission. Although greater than half of the population has been supplied with piped water and sanitary latrines, a lot more has to be done before diarrhoeal diseases could be eliminated from this country.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1987

Helminth remains from prehistoric Indian coprolites on the Colorado Plateau.

Examination of coprolites excavated from archaeological sites in the Americas demonstrates excellent preservation of helminth eggs and, in some cases, larvae. To gain an understanding of helminth parasitism in prehistory on the Colorado Plateau of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah, 319 coprolites from 5 archaeological sites were analyzed. Helminth eggs and larvae were recovered after the coprolites were rehydrated, screened, and sedimented. At a sixth site, soils excavated from 5 rooms used as latrine areas were processed with palynological techniques. The results indicate that all but 1 of the prehistoric populations examined were infected with intestinal worms. The helminths implicated are Enterobius vermicularis, Trichuris trichiura, cf. Ascaris lumbricoides, cf. Trichostrongylus sp., cf. Strongyloides sp., taeniid cestodes, and hymenolepidid cestodes. The study suggests that prehistoric hunter-gatherer peoples carried fewer helminth parasites than agriculturalists. At 1 site, it appears that increased helminth parasitism preceded abandonment of the village.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

[Human intestinal parasites in Subsaharan Africa. II. Sao Tomé and Principe].

In 1983 the authors carried out a survey in the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Principe, analysing 1050 specimens of stools collected among the population from apparently healthy subjects chosen at random and in a number proportional to the distribution of the population in the regions of the country (about 1% of the population was examined). The examined subjects were divided into 3 age groups (0-3, 4-12, more than 12 years old), to have homogeneous groups in relation principally to modalities of life and nutritional patterns. There were 488 male subjects and 562 females. The survey was preceded by a sensitization of the people to the problem of intestinal parasites and by two preliminary surveys about the number of existing latrines and about people's believes and attitudes in relation to helmintiasis. The tests were made according to the modified Ritchie technique on fecal specimens preserved with 10% formol solution. The following results were found: a) Protozoa: Entamoeba coli, 43.0%; Iodamoeba buetschlii, 9.0%; Giardia intestinalis, 8.8%; Endolimax nana, 7.0%; E. histolytica, 5.5%; E. hartmanni, 2.5%; Chilomastix mesnili, 2.3%; Trichomonas intestinalis, 0.2%; Balantidium coli, 0.1%. b) Helminths: Trichuris trichiura, 87.7%; Ascaris lumbricoides, 64.3%; Ancylostomatidae, 40.5%; Strongyloides stercoralis, 6.8%; Hymenolepis diminuta, 0.3%; H. nana, 0.2%; Schistosoma haematobium, 0.2%. In 28.2% of the specimens (with more than 50% of subjects in some villages) eggs of Heterophyidae were found, very similar to Metagonimus yokogawai, but not yet identified by us, with the following characteristics: elliptical shape, average size 25 mu (22.2-27.7) X 18.5 mu (17-21), thick wall, operculum difficult to see, not sticking out from the outline but visible by focusing being in a different refractiveness, presence of a small polar knob, colour slightly brownish, asymmetric miracidium. Further investigations are necessary to identify the species of this trematode and to understand if it is a true human parasite or a pseudoparasite. The general results show the existence of a heavy fecal pollution all over the territory of the D.R. of São Tomé and Principe, connected with unhygienic life conditions, dangerous for health. This suggests to start urgently a sanitation program.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1987

Nitrate contents of well, raw, treated and pipe borne water in Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria.

Nitrate content of water available to man and animals in a rural community in Plateau State, Nigeria was determined. Water samples were obtained from artesian wells, raw untreated surface water, treated raw water, and pipe borne water. The examination of the samples was over a period of 3 mo at weekly intervals. Sixty percent of the artesian wells sampled had nitrate concentration above 5-50 ppm in June and August, while samples from other sources had less than 1 ppm. The proximity of pit latrines to some of the wells may have been responsible for high nitrate content of the well water.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Evaluation of a health education programme in Tayba Qurashi Village, Central Sudan during 1983.

Schistosomiasis, diarrhoeal disease and malaria are spread by improper use of water. The influence of health education on the behaviour of women, who spend their time in the houses and are responsible for their children, was studied in regard to the use of water in Tayba Village in central Sudan. Seventy per cent of the women were illiterate. The education campaign improved understanding of how bilharzia is acquired and how to protect against it. Understanding of how diarrhoea occurs and how to prevent diarrhoea and malaria also increased. Progress was made towards keeping food correctly, in cleanliness of water jars and houses, and in disposal of garbage. The need for cleanliness of latrines and removal of stagnant water was emphasized.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Focality and seasonality of Schistosoma mansoni transmission in the Gezira Irrigated Area, Sudan.

In the Gezira Irrigated Area of Central Sudan, transmission of Schistosoma mansoni was shown to be geographically focal, being concentrated near villages and small settlements. In a study during 1981 and 1982 of the entire area around a typical Gezira village almost 90% of the Biomphalaria pfeifferi snails carrying schistosome infections were found in one minor canal near the village. Sites near smaller settlements some distance from the minor canals yielded few infected snails. The factors which influenced the prevalence of infection in the snails were temperature, turbidity and human contact with the snail habitat. A strategy was proposed for control of Schistosoma transmission through focal and seasonal mollusciciding, health education, chemotherapy, improved water supply and latrine distribution.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1985

The prevalence of intestinal parasites in two suburbs of Kinshasa (Zaire) and their relation to domestic water supplies.

The prevalence of common intestinal nematodes (Ascaris, Trichuris and hookworms) and protozoa (Entamoeba coli, E. histolytica, Giardia, Trichomonas) was compared in two suburbs of Kinshasa, one provided with piped water and the other one with wells. Pit latrines were used in both places. No significant differences were observed for the worms, but the prevalence of the four common protozoa was approximately twice as high in the community without piped water supply. It is concluded that providing piped water has some impact on the transmission of potentially pathogenic intestinal protozoa, but no influence, at least on the short run, on intestinal worms. Infections with Giardia and Trichomonas were significantly associated.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1967

Qualitative and quantitative characteristics adult Culex pipiens fatigans populations according to time, site and place of capture.

The composition of a vector population is largely influenced by the pressures and modifying effects of the environment. Changes in the latter, whether natural or induced (e.g., by insecticides) will be reflected in the former. Thus if the existing characteristics of a vector population are determined, the parameters can subsequently be used to assess the effect of control measures.The effect of environmental conditions on the density and parity of Culex pipiens fatigans in catches in Burma is illustrated by a comparison of results obtained in Kemmendine, which is served by a bucket system for the removal of night-soil, with those from South Okkalapa, which has pit latrines; in the latter area there is a large preponderance of young mosquitos in the monsoon period, in contrast to the situation in Kemmendine.In Kemmendine, the inside-biting catch is reduced by about one-half if an inside-resting catch is made simultaneously. This suggests that C. p. fatigans rests indoors before biting indoors and that an efficient insecticide for inside application would markedly reduce the mosquito population. When a correction is made for the inside-resting catch it is shown that there is little to choose between inside- and outside-biting catches as measures of the activity of C. p. fatigans. The chances of acquiring infection are at least as great out of doors as indoors and this may account for differences in infectivity among different ethnic groups, according to the extent that they sleep out of doors.Differences in parity and in the state of infection of mosquitos according to the type of catch and the time of catching are discussed. Finally, it is noted that, although most male mosquitos are obtained in inside-resting catches, a considerable number, surprisingly, are taken on bait; the reason for this is not yet known.

Adaptation, Biological↗
PubMed1966

Attractant and stimulant factors for oviposition of Culex pipiens fatigans in natural breeding-sites.

The breeding of mosquito larvae in the field is determined by the ovipositing behaviour of the gravid females. Investigation of the chemical factors that induce oviposition is therefore important for understanding mosquito ecology. These substances may also prove to be useful in assessing and controlling mosquito populations.The author has demonstrated two chemical factors, an ovipositing attractant and an ovipositing stimulant, in surface-water. The ovipositing attractant, extracted from surface-water by distillation and extraction with diethyl ether, was found to be quite effective when used to recapture known numbers of gravid mosquitos released in a large calf-shed. The presence of the stimulant factor was established by forcing gravid females to touch the testing water with tarsi and proboscis. After such contact, they began oviposition three times more rapidly on surface-water than on tap-water.The importance of these factors was demonstrated in the larval populations of Culex pipiens fatigans in pit-latrines in Rangoon, Burma.

Animals↗
PubMed1967

Larvicides and larvicidal formulations for the control of Culex pipiens fatigans.

It is generally agreed that no single approach can solve the Culex pipiens fatigans problem at present. The use of larvicides must be integrated and co-ordinated with control techniques utilizing sanitary measures and, in suitable habitats, the use of predacious fish.In the testing of larvicides, factors such as mammalian toxicity and the persistence of toxic residues are important. Organochlorine larvicides persist and accumulate in food-chain organisms, but organophosphorus compounds readily degrade in most plant and animal tissues. In studying these factors a distinction should be made between the laboratory toxicity of a compound and its hazards under field conditions. The development of acquired resistance is a further factor influencing the search for new insecticides.The successful suppression of C. p. fatigans by larvicides will greatly depend on the use of suitable formulations, e.g., solid ones in pit latrines and septic tanks and dense liquid formulations in pukka and kutcha drains. Granular formulations have numerous advantages and their use should be further explored.

Animals↗
PubMed1970

Isolation of Vibrio cholerae from nightsoil during epidemics of classical and E1 Tor Cholera in East Pakistan.

A clear difference has been observed between the classical Inaba V. cholerae and the El Tor Ogawa V. cholerae in relation to the ability to isolate the organism from the environment.An early attempt to utilize nightsoil sampling as a tool to measure the extent of infection in the community during an epidemic of classical Inaba cholera in Dacca, East Pakistan, in the spring and fall of 1968 proved unsuccessful. During an epidemic caused by both the classical Inaba and the El Tor Ogawa vibrios in Chittagong between July 1968 and March 1969 the reasons for this failure became apparent. In Dacca, only 2 isolations of classical Inaba were made from 9906 individual latrine and pooled communal nightsoil samples, whereas in Chittagong, from 62 588 similar samples in which 2 classical Inaba isolations were also made, there were 52 El Tor Ogawa isolations. In areas where cases due to both biotypes were occurring simultaneously, El Tor Ogawa vibrios were isolated 10 times more frequently than the classical Inaba.It remains unclear whether the differences observed between El Tor Ogawa and classical Inaba are related to the biotype or to the serotype of the organism, or to both. An extrapolation of nightsoil sampling, therefore, to the incidence and prevalence of infection in a community must consider both the biotype and the serotype.

Cholera↗
PubMed1983

The incidence of amoebiasis among secondary school students in Calabar, Nigeria.

A study was conducted among 2 500 secondary school students in Calabar, in order to determine the incidence of amoebiasis caused by Entamoeba histolytica. Microscopic examination of faecal sample smears showed higher percentage infections in the males than in the females; 61 out of 1 250 males were infected (4.8%), while 52 of 1 250 females were infected (4.1%). Among infected persons, asymptomatic carriers (64.6%) and symptomatic cases (35.4%) were recorded. Infection was lower among students using water flush toilet facilities than those using pit and bucket latrines. The infection was attributed to poor sanitation and inadequate health facilities.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1980

A schistosomiasis pilot control project in Lindu valley, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.

This pilot control project was an intervention study, consisting of: 1) treating the positive cases with Niridazole; 2) spraying the foci with Niclosamide; 3) improving the water supply system and construction of public latrines. The intervention not only has lowered the human prevalence rate, but has also lowered the transmission of the disease in that area. Niridazole appeared relatively safe and effective, the cure rate after one year was 80%. Spraying the foci with Niclosamide 20-40 mg per litre did not appear very effective. Using this epidemiological data it was estimated that infected persons would become spontaneously negative after 4.75 years, if there was no reinfection.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Selling health in the market place: the Araromi approach.

This paper describes a village health education project in a disadvantaged community of 10,000 inhabitants located 100 kms north of Lagos, Nigeria. The object was to "sell" the concept of good health to the people. With this purpose in mind the health education team set up a health stall on the market place. Soon it was crowded with people and a neighbouring village asked for assistance in launching a similar project. This was the opportunity the team had been waiting for to start off the participation process. A village health committee was set up, including community leaders and health personnel as well as traditional healers and birth attendants. The group split up into three subcommittees, to involve a maximum number of people: the turning point in changing the community's attitudes and making the people look at health problems as their problems had been reached. Within a few months progress was recorded. Six covered pithole latrines were built, the stream was fenced on both sides, an incinerator was built, families became accustomed to boiling and filtering water, the dispensary recorded an increase of more than 300% in attendance, the maternity centre doubled its volume of work, and school weight charts reflected an improvement in nutrition practices. Teachers became quite cooperative in sending children to the dispensary and took on the supervision of hygiene on the school premises. Finally, volunteers personally checked on environmental cleanliness. In short, within nine months the village became an example to other communities--and a test case of the use of the primary health care approach.

Delivery of Health Care↗
PubMed1995

Monitoring progress towards health for all by the year 2000: indicators from Iganga District, Uganda.

A sample of 5018 inhabitants in three counties of Iganga district, Uganda was selected by means of a multi-stage cluster sampling procedure and interviewed in 1984. A sub sample was re-interviewed, the following year to study population dynamics. 50.2% of the population were under 15 years of age and 4.2% were aged one year or less. About 80% of both sexes aged 6-15 years were in school or had primary education. Male adult literacy rate was 62% and female adult literacy rate was 38%. The average number of people per sleeping room was 2.4. 82.9% of households used well or unprotected spring as main source of water and 30% of households did not have pit latrine. Infant mortality rate was estimated to be 126 per 1000 livebirths and measles was the major cause of mortality (38%) in the under fives. The crude birth rate estimate was 51 per 1000. The estimate of lameness due to polio was 6.6 per 1000 children aged 15 years or below. The mean weight and the mean height of the children were both below 50th percentile of the NCHS standards. In the re-survey, the crude birth rate and infant mortality rate estimates corresponded well to the initial values for the total sample obtained in the previous survey. 5% of the population had moved out of the village and 1.8% had moved to settle in the village. The growth rate in both weight and height of the under five children was satisfactory compared to the rate of the standard. From the result of the study, only six years after adoption of PHC in Uganda, the relatively high educational level of the younger population should be taken as a positive indicator of better health indices in the future.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Risk factors for development of first symptomatic Giardia infection among infants of a birth cohort in rural Egypt.

Giardia infection is associated with diarrheal diseases among infants and young children in both industrialized and developing countries. A study was conducted to demonstrate the predisposing factors for occurrence of the first symptomatic Giardia infection among infants in rural Egypt. The study cohort was followed from birth through the first year of life. Univariate and multivariate analyses of data revealed that infants less than six months of age were at special risk for developing their first symptomatic infection compared with infants more than six months of age. Analysis of the data, furthermore, revealed an increased risk of infant Giardia infection associated with living in a household without a latrine (relative risk [RR] = 2.63, confidence interval [CI] = 1.4-4.9, P < 0.05), a mud floor in the sleeping rooms (RR = 1.79, CI = 1.O30-3.0, P < 0.05), and household exposure to more than 10 chickens (RR = 2.5, CI = 1.13-5.56, P < 0.05). In contrast, the mother's education beyond the primary level (RR = 0.28, CI = 0.09-0.85, P < 0.05), drinking water stored in metallic containers (RR = 0.33, CI = 0.11-0.98, P < 0.05), and male sex (RR = 0.52, CI = 0.3-0.89, P < 0.05) were associated with decreased risk of Giardia infection. These data suggest that in addition to age of infants, poverty, low education, gender discrimination, and certain environmental conditions potentiated the risk for developing the first symptomatic infection.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

[Seroepidemiology of toxoplasmosis on Mayotte (Comores Archipelago)].

A seroepidemiological survey of toxoplasmosis was carried out on Mayotte Island. Detection of IgG was performed on 871 samples from 509 females and 362 males by indirect immunofluorescence assay. Using a cut-off value of 12 UI (1/16), 734 sera (84.3%) were found to be positive. Assays for specific IgM which were carried out only in positive subjects detected IgM in 13 people (1.5%). Comparison between different ethnic groups showed significantly higher rates of seroprevalence in villages with latrines. This finding is attributed to the use of fresh water for bathing and dish washing. It has been hypothesized that use of salt water for these purposes lessens the rate of contamination by destroying Toxoplasma gondii oocysts.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Field trial of an ecological approach for the control of Phlebotomus argentipes using mud & lime plaster.

A pilot study for the control of Ph. argentipes, a known vector of kala-azar in India, was carried out using an ecological approach. Of the 15 houses selected for the study 10, including the cattle sheds and latrines, were plastered with a mixture of mud and lime, up to a height of 1.22 m taking care to seal all cracks and crevices. The remaining five houses were left unplastered and were considered as control areas. The pre-treatment and post-treatment resting densities of the sandfly were monitored both in treated and untreated houses. A sudden drop in the sandfly density was noticed in the treated houses, whereas there was no significant reduction in the check houses, suggesting an effective control.

Animals↗