Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “IRRIGATION”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 343 records · Page 19Linked to original sources
PubMed2006

Exploring thermal imaging variables for the detection of stress responses in grapevine under different irrigation regimes.

Temperatures of leaves or canopies can be used as indicators of stomatal closure in response to soil water deficit. In 2 years of field experiments with grapevines (Vitis vinifera L., cvs Castelão and Aragonês), it was found that thermal imaging can distinguish between irrigated and non-irrigated canopies, and even between deficit irrigation treatments. Average canopy temperature was inversely correlated with stomatal conductance measured with a porometer. Variation of the distribution of temperatures within canopies was not found to be a reliable indicator of stress. A large degree of variation between images was found in reference 'wet' and 'dry' leaves used in the first year for the calculation of an index proportional to stomatal conductance. In the second year, fully irrigated (FI) (100% Et(c)) and non-irrigated (NI) canopies were used as alternatives to wet and dry leaves. A crop water stress index utilizing these FI and NI 'references', where stressed canopies have the highest values and non-stressed canopies have the lowest values, was found to be a suitable measure for detecting stress. It is suggested that the average temperatures of areas of canopies containing several leaves may be more useful for distinguishing between irrigation treatments than the temperatures of individual leaves. Average temperatures over several leaves per canopy may be expected to reduce the impact of variation in leaf angles. The results are discussed in relation to the application of thermal imaging to irrigation scheduling and monitoring crop performance.

Carbon Isotopes↗
PubMed2004

Effects of regulated deficit irrigation during the pre-harvest period on gas exchange, leaf development and crop yield of mature almond trees.

We investigated the effects of regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) during the pre-harvest period (kernel-filling stage) on water relations, leaf development and crop yield in mature almond (Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb cv. Cartagenera) trees during a 2-year field experiment. Trees were either irrigated at full-crop evapotranspiration (ETc=100%) (well-irrigated control treatment) or subjected to an RDI treatment that consisted of full irrigation for the full season, except from early June to early August (kernel-filling stage), when 20% ETc was applied. The severity of water stress was characterized by measurements of soil water content, predawn leaf water potential (Psipd) and relative water content (RWC). Stomatal conductance (gs), net CO2 assimilation rate (A), transpiration rate (E), leaf abscission, leaf expansion rate and crop yield were also measured. In both years, Psipd and RWC of well-irrigated trees were maintained above -1.0 MPa and 92%, respectively, whereas the corresponding values for trees in the RDI treatment were -2.37 MPa and 82%. Long-term water stress led to a progressive decline in gs, A and E, with significant reductions after 21 days in the RDI treatment. At the time of maximum stress (48 days after commencement of RDI), A, gs and E were 64, 67 and 56% lower than control values, respectively. High correlations between A, E and gs were observed. Plant water status recovered within 15 days after the resumption of irrigation and was associated with recovery of soil water content. A relatively rapid and complete recovery of A and gs was also observed, although the recovery was slower than for Psipd and RWC. Severe water stress during the kernel-filling stage resulted in premature defoliation (caused by increased leaf abscission) and a reduction in leaf growth rate, which decreased tree leaf area. Although kernel yield was correlated with leaf water potential, RDI caused a nonsignificant 7% reduction in kernel yield and had no effect on kernel size. The RDI treatment also improved water-use efficiency because about 30% less irrigation water was applied in the RDI treatment than in the control treatment. We conclude that high-cropping almonds can be successfully grown in semiarid regions in an RDI regime provided that Psipd is maintained above a threshold value of -2 MPa.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2005

Radiation-use efficiency and gas exchange responses to water and nutrient availability in irrigated and fertilized stands of sweetgum and sycamore.

We investigated how water and nutrient availability affect radiation-use efficiency (epsilon) and assessed leaf gas exchange as a possible mechanism for shifts in epsilon. We measured aboveground net primary production (ANPP) and annual photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) capture to calculate epsilon as well as leaf-level physiological variables (light-saturated net photosynthesis, Asat; stomatal conductance, gs; leaf internal CO2 concentration, Ci; foliar nitrogen concentration, foliar [N]; and midday leaf water potential, Psileaf) during the second (2001) and third (2002) growing seasons in sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) stands receiving a factorial combination of irrigation and fertilization at the Savannah River Site, South Carolina. Irrigation and fertilization increased PAR capture (maximum increase 60%) in 2001 and 2002 for both species and annual PAR capture was well correlated with ANPP (mean r2 = 0.77). A decreasing trend in epsilon was observed in non-irrigated stands for sweetgum in 2001 and for sycamore in both years, although this was only significant for sycamore in 2002. Irrigated stands maintained higher gas exchange rates than non-irrigated stands for sweetgum in 2001 and for sycamore in both years, although foliar [N] and Psileaf were generally unaffected. Because Ci decreased in proportion to gs in non-irrigated stands, it appeared that greater stomatal limitation of photosynthesis was associated with decreased Asat. On several measurement dates for sweetgum in 2001 and for sycamore in both years, epsilon was positively correlated with gas exchange variables (Asat, gs, Ci) (r ranged from 0.600 to 0.857). These results indicate that PAR capture is well correlated with ANPP and that gas exchange rates modified by irrigation can influence the conversion of captured light energy to biomass.

Fertilizers↗
PubMed2004

Mechanisms for enlarging lesion size during irrigated tip radiofrequency ablation: is there a virtual electrode effect?

INTRODUCTION: Irrigated tip radiofrequency ablation of cardiac arrhythmias was developed to increase the size of the radiofrequency-induced lesion, since cooling of the electrode tip allows use of higher power settings. The purpose of this study was to determine if the increased lesion size during irrigated tip ablation is caused by the cooling effect solely or if increased electrical conductivity around the tip also contributes by increasing the "current-delivering size" of the tip: the so-called "virtual electrode effect." METHODS AND RESULTS: In vitro strips of left ventricular porcine myocardium and in vivo canine left ventricles were ablated. In vitro closed loop tip and showerhead irrigated tip catheters were compared. In vitro and in vivo showerhead tip catheters irrigated with solutions having different ionic content were compared. We found no difference in lesion size for closed loop and showerhead-type catheters (998 +/- 345 vs. 811 +/- 313 mm(3) during power-controlled ablation and 227 +/- 76 vs 318 +/- 127 mm(3) during temperature-controlled ablation). For irrigation with liquids having increasing ionic strength we found a decrease in lesion volume in vitro (361 +/- 249 vs. 812 +/- 229 mm(3) (P < 0.001) for power-controlled and 156 +/- 78 vs. 318 +/- 127 mm(3) (P < 0.05) for temperature-controlled ablation and nonsignificant differences in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: The mechanism for enlarging lesion size during radiofrequency irrigated-tip ablation is that higher power levels can be used. There is no virtual electrode effect caused by the highly conductive surroundings of the tip during irrigation. In vitro this effect is shown to be opposite: it decreases lesion size.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

High levels of microbial contamination of vegetables irrigated with wastewater by the drip method.

The public health aspects of the use of wastewater in agriculture and the effects of the drip irrigation method on the contamination of vegetables were studied. The method used was to simulate enteric microorganisms' dissemination by contaminated irrigation water in the field. The vegetables were irrigated with an effluent inoculated with a high titer of traceable microorganisms: poliovirus vaccine and a drug-resistant Escherichia coli. The dissemination of the marker organisms in the field was followed, and the effects of certain manipulations of the drip irrigation method on the contamination of the crops by the effluent were examined. It was shown that drip irrigation under plastic sheet cover with the drip lines placed either on the soil surface or buried at a depth of 10 cm significantly reduced crop contamination from inoculated irrigation water even when massive doses of bacteria and viruses were used. The microbial contamination was found to persist in the irrigation pipes and in the soil for at least 8 and 18 days, respectively. The data indicate that the recovery of the marker organisms was affected by soil texture and environmental conditions.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2001

Influence of effluent irrigation on community composition and function of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in soil.

The effect of effluent irrigation on community composition and function of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) in soil was evaluated, using techniques of molecular biology and analytical soil chemistry. Analyses were conducted on soil sampled from lysimeters and from a grapefruit orchard which had been irrigated with wastewater effluent or fertilizer-amended water (FAW). Specifically, comparisons of AOB community composition were conducted using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of PCR-amplified fragments of the gene encoding the alpha-subunit of the ammonia monooxygenase gene (amoA) recovered from soil samples and subsequent sequencing of relevant bands. A significant and consistent shift in the population composition of AOB was detected in soil irrigated with effluent. This shift was absent in soils irrigated with FAW, despite the fact that the ammonium concentration in the FAW was similar. At the end of the irrigation period, Nitrosospira-like populations were dominant in soils irrigated with FAW, while Nitrosomonas-like populations were dominant in effluent-irrigated soils. Furthermore, DGGE analysis of the amoA gene proved to be a powerful tool in evaluating the soil AOB community population and population shifts therein.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1986

Experimental cryo-irrigation of the knee joint.

Experiments have been carried out to test the feasibility of using cryo-irrigation as a means of ablating the synovium in the rheumatoid knee joint. Cryo-irrigation was performed by a cooling machine and pump, which circulated cold 200/10 centistoke (cSt) silicone through the knee joint of rabbits anaesthetised with intravenous (IV) 'Saffan'. Fluid left the joint at -5 to -10 degrees C. Sixteen normal New Zealand rabbits received cryo-irrigation of one knee joint for 10-20 minutes and were killed at one day, and one, two, and 12 weeks thereafter. Judged by radioactive sulphate incorporation there was no impairment of chondrocyte function in the articular cartilage of irrigated joints. Histological examination showed mild synovitis and some loss of staining of superficial cartilage in 6/16 irrigated joints (v 1/16 control joints). Similar treatment of rabbit joints in which the Glynn model of synovitis had been induced showed marked reduction of synovitis 14-45 days after silicone treatment. Nine of 26 animals in which synovitis was induced in both knees and cryo-irrigation performed in one knee died either immediately postoperatively or during the next week. These deaths remain unexplained. A single dog received cryo-irrigation of one knee (-6 to -9 degrees C for 22 min) and remained perfectly well up to sacrifice at six months, when the joint appeared histologically completely normal.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Health risks associated with wastewater irrigation: an epidemiological study.

An analysis of morbidity was made in 11 kibbutzim (cooperative agricultural settlements), with a total population of 3,040, that had switched from nonwastewater to wastewater sprinkler irrigation or vice versa. Generally, partially treated stabilization pond effluent of poor microbial quality was used for irrigation. Vegetables or salad crops were not irrigated with effluent. The results showed that a seasonal, twofold, excess risk of "enteric" disease was found in the 0 to 4 year-old age group during the summer irrigation months in those years in which wastewater was used for irrigation, compared with the parallel summer months of nonwastewater irrigation years in the same kibbutz. On the year round rates basis, little or no excess enteric disease was found in wastewater irrigating communities.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Soil chemical changes resulting from irrigation with water co-produced with coalbed natural gas.

Land application of coalbed natural gas (CBNG) co-produced water is a popular management option within northwestern Powder River Basin (PRB) of Wyoming. This study evaluated the impacts of land application of CBNG waters on soil chemical properties at five sites. Soil samples were collected from different depths (0-5, 5-15, 15-30, 30-60, 60-90, and 90-120 cm) from sites that were irrigated with CBNG water for 2 to 3 yr and control sites. Chemical properties of CBNG water used for irrigation on the study sites indicate that electrical conductivity of CBNG water (EC(w)) and sodium adsorption ratio of CBNG water (SAR(w)) values were greater than those recommended for irrigation use on the soils at the study sites. Soil chemical analyses indicated that electrical conductivity of soil saturated paste extracts (EC(e)) and sodium adsorption ratio of soil saturated paste extracts (SAR(e)) values for irrigated sites were significantly greater (P < 0.05) than control plots in the upper 30-cm soil depths. Mass balance calculations suggested that there has been significant buildup of Na in irrigated soils due to CBNG irrigation water as well as Na mobilization within the soil profiles. Results indicate that irrigation with CBNG water significantly impacts certain soil properties, particularly if amendments are not properly utilized. This study provides information for better understanding changes in soil properties due to land application of CBNG water. These changes must be considered in developing possible criteria for preserving fragile PRB ecosystems.

Absorption↗
PubMed2005

In situ measurements of nitrate leaching implicate poor nitrogen and irrigation management on sandy soils.

Minimizing the risk of nitrate contamination along the waterways of the U.S. Great Plains is essential to continued irrigated corn production and quality water supplies. The objectives of this study were to quantify nitrate (NO(3)) leaching for irrigated sandy soils (Pratt loamy fine sand [sandy, mixed, mesic Lamellic Haplustalfs]) and to evaluate the effects of N fertilizer and irrigation management strategies on NO(3) leaching in irrigated corn. Two irrigation schedules (1.0x and 1.25x optimum) were combined with six N fertilizer treatments broadcast as NH(4)NO(3) (kg N ha(-1)): 300 and 250 applied pre-plant; 250 applied pre-plant and sidedress; 185 applied pre-plant and sidedress; 125 applied pre-plant and sidedress; and 0. Porous-cup tensiometers and solution samplers were installed in each of the four highest N treatments. Soil solution samples were collected during the 2001 and 2002 growing seasons. Maximum corn grain yield was achieved with 125 or 185 kg N ha(-1), regardless of the irrigation schedule (IS). The 1.25x IS exacerbated the amount of NO(3) leached below the 152-cm depth in the preplant N treatments, with a mean of 146 kg N ha(-1) for the 250 and 300 kg N preplant applications compared with 12 kg N ha(-1) for the same N treatments and 1.0x IS. With 185 kg N ha(-1), the 1.25x IS treatment resulted in 74 kg N ha(-1) leached compared with 10 kg N ha(-1) for the 1.0x IS. Appropriate irrigation scheduling and N fertilizer rates are essential to improving N management practices on these sandy soils.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2006

Economic valuation of reduction in nitrogen outflow from a paddy field area equipped with a recycling irrigation facility.

We estimated the reduction in nitrogen outflow load from a paddy field that had a recycling irrigation facility and, by using a replacement cost method, evaluated the economic effect of nitrogen removal by the paddy field during the irrigation period in the Yoshinuma region of Tsukuba City, Japan. The recycling ratio of outflow water (proportion of outflow reused) was 13.5%. The nitrogen (N) outflow load was reduced by about 45 kg ha(-1) by the N removal function of the paddy field and by about 39 kg ha(-1) by the recycling irrigation facility. The paddy field equipped with a recycling irrigation facility as an N removal facility was valued at 32.6 million Japanese yen (JPY) ha(-1) and 0.72 million JPY ha(-1) per year, which compare it with the construction and maintenance costs, respectively, of a water quality improvement facility. The recycling irrigation facility was costed at 17.3 million JPY ha(-1) for construction and 0.21 million JPY ha(-1) for maintenance per year. The cost for constructing and maintaining a recycling irrigation facility was 53% of the value of the paddy field area equipped with a recycling irrigation facility as an N removal facility.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2005

Comparison assessment of water use and damage between modern and traditional rice irrigation schemes: case of Usangu basin, Tanzania.

Water management and competition between users in water scarce river basins is a major challenge facing the human race. The inter dependence of users in such basins, necessitates a clear understanding of each user in relation to the location, the water demand, and the duration of water need. The understanding of these factors, together, is very important for the management of water resources in such basins without which, it is argued that, water is overused and wasted. As an example of this, the large modern and improved rice irrigation systems in Tanzania are believed to use water more efficient than the traditional irrigation systems. Yet, well-founded scientific analyses are a necessary part to quantify such beliefs as they can inform us whether the natural resource, in such systems, is properly utilized and managed or not. Likewise, such studies can allow us to quantify how much water is over used and thus the natural resource is unnecessarily degraded. This paper explores a study conducted in the Usangu basin, Tanzania, to investigate the gross and net needs for modern and traditional rice irrigation schemes, and the implications with regards to water resource management and damage. Problems relating to modernization of traditional smallholder irrigation systems and upstream--downstream water users are further discussed. The paper concludes from the study that modern irrigation schemes are inefficient compared to traditional irrigation schemes. Also modernization of traditional schemes in the study area have resulted into over abstraction and reduced productivity of water. Looking to the future, this study tells us that improvement or modernization of irrigation infrastructure should be balanced between negative impacts to available water resources albeit it's significant economic contribution to the community.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2000

[Anatomopathological and biochemical correlation of lesions produced by standard and irrigated 4 mm radiofrequency catheters].

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: The influence on the size of radiofrequency lesions by cooling of the tip of the electrode remains unclear. Moreover, the possible effects of two different cooling systems, closed and open, have not been well differentiated. We designed this study to compare both systems of irrigated-tip catheters and the lesions produced with standard 4 mm catheters and also to evaluate the pathological and biochemical marker release correlation (cardiac troponin I) in an experimental model. METHODS: The study was performed in 20 pigs. Applying between 1-8 radiofrequency pulses, at a power of 15, 25 or 50 watts, for 15-60 seconds to each animal. After 7 days, the pigs were sacrificed for anatomopathological study. RESULTS: A total of 54 lesions were produced, 25 with standard catheters and 29 with irrigated catheters. The mean volume of the lesions produced with standard catheters was 146 +/- 110 microl and with irrigated-tip catheters 856 +/- 864 microl (p < 0.001). Peak values of cardiac troponin I were also higher for irrigated catheters (18 +/- 15 ng/ml) than for standard (6.5 +/- 3 ng/ml). The correlation between the size of the lesion and the levels of cardiac troponin I were 0.86 and 0.79 with the standard and irrigated-tip catheters, respectively. The incidence of cratering was higher with standard catheters (60%) than with irrigated (27%). CONCLUSIONS: The lesions produced with an irrigated catheter are greater than those observed with standard catheters. The mean peak value of postablation cardiac troponin demonstrate a good correlation with the real size of the necrosis.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Rototillage, disking, and subsequent irrigation: effects on soil nitrogen dynamics, microbial biomass, and carbon dioxide efflux.

Spring and summer tillage are usually followed by irrigation before planting crops in California's summer-dry Mediterranean-type climate. Tillage treatments such as rototillage or disking are known to disturb the soil structure to different extents, but little is known about how the intensity of a tillage event and subsequent irrigation affect the microbial biomass, respiration, CO2 efflux, and mineral N of agricultural soils. We carried out an experiment with a Yolo silt loam (fine-silty, mixed, superactive, nonacid, thermic Mollic Xerofluvent) with two tilled treatments (rototillage and disked and rolled) and a nontilled control. The soil was subsequently sampled throughout a 17-d period. Nine days after tillage, all treatments were lightly sprinkler-irrigated to bring the soil water potential above -10 kPa. After tillage, the soil ammonium and nitrate content increased rapidly relative to the control with highest increases in the disked soil. Mineral N remained higher in the tilled treatments after irrigation. Rototillage and disking increased the CO2 efflux of the soil within 24 h of the disturbance. The increase was higher in the disked soil, which was more than three times the CO2 efflux of the control soil at 0.25 h after tillage. This effect may be due to degassing of dissolved CO2 since microbial respiration did not increase in tilled soils. Irrigation increased the CO2 efflux of all treatments but this was most pronounced in the control soil, which had an order of magnitude increase in CO2 efflux after irrigation. An ancillary experiment carried out under similar conditions but with more frequent sampling showed that increases in CO2 efflux after irrigation were accompanied by increases in soil respiration. This study shows that different tillage implements affect CO2 efflux, nitrate accumulation, and microbial activity, and thus have different effects on soil and atmospheric environmental quality.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2003

Modelling the influence of irrigation abstractions on Scotland's water resources.

Legislation to control abstraction of water in Scotland is limited and for purposes such as irrigation there are no restrictions in place over most of the country. This situation is set to change with implementation of the European Water Framework Directive. As a first step towards the development of appropriate policy for irrigation control there is a need to assess the current scale of irrigation practices in Scotland. This paper presents a modelling approach that has been used to quantify spatially the volume of water abstractions across the country for irrigation of potato crops under typical climatic conditions. A water balance model was developed to calculate soil moisture deficits and identify the potential need for irrigation. The results were then combined with spatial data on potato cropping and integrated to the sub-catchment scale to identify the river systems most at risk from over-abstraction. The results highlight that the areas that have greatest need for irrigation of potatoes are all concentrated in the central east-coast area of Scotland. The difference between irrigation demand in wet and dry years is very significant, although spatial patterns of the distribution are similar.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2005

Effect of irrigation and large dams on the burden of malaria on a global and regional scale.

Human-made ecologic transformations have occurred at an unprecedented rate over the past 50 years. Prominent among them are water resource development projects. An estimated 40,000 large dams and 800,000 small dams have been built, and 272 million hectares of land are currently under irrigation worldwide. The establishment and operation of water projects has had a history of facilitating a change in the frequency and transmission dynamics of malaria, but analyses of these environmental risk factors are sparse. Here, we present a comprehensive review of studies that assessed the impact of irrigation and dam building on malaria prevalence or incidence, stratified by the World Health Organization's (WHO) sub-regions of the world, and link these studies with the latest statistics on disability adjusted life years, irrigated agriculture, and large dams. We also present estimates of the population at risk due to proximity to irrigation schemes and large dam reservoirs. In WHO sub-regions 1 and 2, which have 87.9% of the current global malaria burden, only 9.4 million people are estimated to live near large dams and irrigation schemes. In contrast, the remaining sub-regions concentrate an estimated 15.3 million people near large dams and up to 845 million near irrigation sites, while here only 12.1% of the global malaria burden is concentrated. Whether an individual water project triggers an increase in malaria transmission depends on the contextual determinants of malaria, including the epidemiologic setting, socioeconomic factors, vector management, and health seeking behavior. We conclude that in unstable malaria endemic areas, integrated malaria control measures, coupled with sound water management, are mandatory to mitigate the current burden of malaria in locations near irrigation or dam sites.

Endemic Diseases↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Effect of the irrigation and reclamation transformation of the Karshi Steppe on burrow sandflies of the genus Phlebotomus--vectors of the causative agent of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis].

Studies of land irrigation effect on Phlebotomus sandflies, carriers of Leishmania major (a zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis causative agent)--were performed for 15 field work periods, from 1967 to 1981, at 18 sites in various natural areas of the Karshi Steppe (Uzbek SSR). Over 43500 sandfly specimen were caught and identified. Regularities in sandfly number changes, first of all, that of Ph. papatasi, after irrigation were determined, with respect to various proximity of great gerbils' settlements, where sandflies breed in the irrigated fields. Well-drained sites situated higher than irrigated fields are practically unaffected by irrigation, sandflies number and specific composition being practically unchanged. At the sites situated either on the same level with irrigated fields or 3-5 m lower the number of sandflies changes usually in 2 stages: 1) short-term increase in Ph. papatasi number at the very beginning of the irrigation period; 2) formation of stably high or low Phlebotomus numbers due to stabilization of hydrothermal regime in the holes of great gerbils.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1987

[Balloon method and water irrigation in thermal vestibular assessment. Electronystagmographic comparison of both methods].

In cases of large central perforation of the eardrum, caloric test of the vestibular organ cannot be carried out by irrigation of the external auditory canal with water but must be done with a balloon instilled in the external auditory canal perfused with water. Caloric responses were registered by using water irrigation and balloon irrigation in 40 healthy persons. Nystagmographic registrations were analysed. Frequency, slow phase velocity and amplitude of nystagmus were measured. Cumulative percentage curves of the four caloric responses are drawn to compare the distribution of data in balloon and water irrigation (Figures 2-5). In addition, mean values and standard deviations of data and of difference in excitability related to the total excitability are recorded in table 1. Statistics (Wilcoxon test for matched pairs) reveals no significant differences in nystagmographic pattern of caloric reactions between water and balloon stimulation. It is concluded that in the caloric test of the vestibular organ balloon irrigation is equivalent to water irrigation. Balloon irrigation is more comfortable for the patient and easier to handle.

Caloric Tests↗