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PubMed1966

An excitatory action of adrenaline, noradrenaline, and 5-hydroxytryptamine on the spinal cord.

1. Fasciculation was produced in the trapezius and sternomastoid muscles of anaesthetized cats by adrenaline, noradrenaline and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) put into the cisterna magna. Isoprenaline, similarly applied, was ineffective.2. Each of the three active amines was without effect when applied for a second time after the fasciculation in response to the first application had passed off, but 5-HT was effective after adrenaline and, similarly, adrenaline after 5-HT.3. Fasciculation produced by adrenaline, but not by 5-HT, was inhibited by ergotamine or phenoxybenzamine, given intravenously.4. In producing fasciculation, the adrenaline appeared to be acting on or through the lateral aspect of the upper cervical cord, about the line of emergence of the roots of the spinal accessory nerve, mainly in C1 and C2.5. The electromyograms of the fasciculation due to adrenaline and 5-HT showed intermittent bursts of activity. After adrenaline, the bursts consisted of fewer spikes than after 5-HT. The intervals between consecutive spikes were 3.75-5 msec after either amine, and the bursts occurred irregularly, at frequencies between 7 and 12/sec.6. It is suggested that adrenaline and 5-HT have excitatory actions on the dendrites or somata of the spinal accessory motor neurones, and the possible role of these amines as synaptic transmitters in the spinal nucleus of the accessory nerve is discussed.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1984

From embryonic fascicles to adult tracts: organization of neuropile from a developmental perspective.

We discuss ideas emerging from our studies on selective axonal fasciculation in the grasshopper embryo that have implications for the organization of the adult neuropile in insects and perhaps other animals. While one of our laboratories has been studying the embryonic development of the G neurone (in the mesothoracic segment) and its lineal homologues (in other segments), the other has been studying the morphology and physiology of this same neurone and its segmental homologues in the adult nervous system. Our embryonic studies show that the growth cone of the G neurone selectively fasciculates with the A/P fascicle in preference to all other longitudinal axon fascicles at it turns anteriorly. The homologues of G in other thoracic and abdominal segments fasciculate in this same bundle. However, early in their morphological differentiation, they reveal interesting segmental differences. Our studies on the adult nervous system show that the segmental homologues of the G neurone share many properties in common (e.g. axons in the LDT: lateral dorsal tract) while other features are quite different. The notion emerging from these studies is that a basic segmentally-repeated pattern arises during embryogenesis: a stereotyped axonal scaffold upon which growth cones faithfully fasciculate. Evolutionary plasticity allows the specialization of lineally equivalent neurones in different segments within the context of the neuropilar neighbourhood that they find themselves in as a consequence of their selective fasciculation.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Effect of donepezil hydrochloride (E2020) on extracellular acetylcholine concentration in the cerebral cortex of rats.

Donepezil hydrochloride (donepezil), a potent and selective acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, has been developed for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. We studied the effect of oral administration of this drug on the extracellular acetylcholine (ACh) concentration in the cerebral cortex of rats using microdialysis. We also observed fasciculation, a peripheral cholinergic sign induced by activation of neuromuscular transmission, after oral administration of the drug as an index of peripheral cholinergic activation. Other cholinesterase inhibitors, tacrine, ENA-713 and TAK-147, were used as reference drugs. Donepezil significantly and dose-dependently increased the extracellular ACh concentration in the rat cerebral cortex within the dose range of 2.5-10 mg/kg. Tacrine, ENA-713 and TAK-147 also elevated the extracellular concentration of ACh. The minimum effective doses of donepezil, tacrine, ENA-713 and TAK-147 were (< or = 2.5, 10, 10 and < or = 10 mg/kg, respectively. Donepezil produced fasciculation at doses of 2.5 mg/kg and above, with a dose-dependent increase in incidence and intensity. The reference compounds also induced fasciculation in a dose-dependent manner. The threshold doses of tacrine, ENA-713 and TAK-147 for fasciculation were 5, 2.5 and 2.5 mg/kg, respectively. The values of the ratio of the minimum effective dose for the ACh-increasing action to that for the fasciculation-producing action were: donepezil, < or = 1; tacrine, 2; ENA-713, 4; TAK-147, < or = 4. These results indicate that orally administered donepezil has a potent and selective activity on the central cholinergic system.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

The search for an optimal interval between pretreatment dose of d-tubocurarine and succinylcholine.

A study was conducted to determine the optimal interval between the administration of d-tubocurarine (dTc) and succinylcholine (SCh) with regard to onset and duration of neuromuscular block and presence of fasciculations and postoperative myalgias. Forty female patients received dTc 3 mg X 70 kg-1 prior to SCh 1.5 mg X kg-1. The interval between drugs was 0, 1, 3, 5, or 7 minutes. Transduced thumb adduction recorded block onset and recovery. Fasciculations were visually detected. Myalgias were assessed on postoperative interview. Pretreatment interval did not affect the onset or recovery of neuromuscular block. Postoperative myalgias were also independent of pretreatment timing. Fasciculations were blocked with 3, 5, or 7 minute intervals, but not with 0 or 1 minute intervals. Therefore, three minutes appear to be the optimal time interval between administration of dTc and SCh since shorter intervals do not inhibit fasciculations and longer intervals do not afford any additional advantages.

Arthroscopy↗
PubMed1998

A rapid precurarization technique using rocuronium.

PURPOSE: To evaluate a rapid and time-saving precurarization technique using rocuronium to prevent succinylcholine-induced myalgia. METHOD: In a prospective, double blind randomized study, 42 ASA 1-2 patients were assigned to one of three pretreatment groups: 0.01 ml.kg-1 normal saline, 0.1 mg.kg-1 atracurium, and 0.1 mg.kg-1 rocuronium. Anaesthesia commenced with 1.5 micrograms.kg-1 fentanyl and 0.5 mg.kg-1 lidocaine at time zero. Pretreatment was administered 60 sec later, followed by 2.5 mg.kg-1 propofol. At 90 sec, 1.5 mg.kg-1 succinylcholine was injected and 30 sec later, the trachea was intubated and the ease of intubation was graded. The patient was observed for the presence and severity of fasciculations. Myalgias were recorded on postoperative days 1, 2 and 7. RESULTS: The incidence of fasciculations in the rocuronium group (21.4%) was lower (P < 0.001) than atracurium (78.5%) or placebo (92.8%) groups. On postoperative day 1, the incidence of postoperative myalgia in the rocuronium group (14.2%) was less than the placebo group (78.2%; P < 0.002) and atracurium group (85.7%; P < 0.001). The incidence of myalgia in the rocuronium group (7.1%) was lower than in the placebo group (78.5%; P < 0.001) but not different from the atracurium group (42.8%; P = 0.077) on postoperative day 2. On postoperative day 7, there was no difference among the three groups. Fasciculations were related to postoperative myalgia. There was no difference in intubating conditions among the three groups. CONCLUSION: Rocuronium pretreatment given just before induction of anaesthesia with propofol reduces fasciculations and succinylcholine-induced myalgia.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

[Precurarization of succinylcholine with cisatracurium: the influence of the precurarization interval].

PURPOSE: To determine the influence of two different pretreatment intervals, i.e. 3 and 6 min, on the efficacy of 0.01 mg/kg cisatracurium in preventing succinylcholine-induced fasciculations and myalgia. METHODS: A total of 60 adult patients were randomized and received either 0.01 mg/kg cisatracurium (0.2*ED(95)) i.v. (Cis 3 group: pretreatment interval 3 min, Cis 6 group: pretreatment interval 6 min) or normal saline i.v. (placebo group) prior to injection of succinylcholine. The incidence and severity of fasciculations and myalgia and side-effects of precurarization were assessed. RESULTS: The incidence of muscle fasciculations was only reduced in the Cis 6 group (45%) compared with the Placebo group (85%), p<0.05. Cisatracurium was associated with a higher incidence of paralytic symptoms in both pretreatment groups (Cis 3: 75%, Cis 6: 80%) compared with the Placebo group (30%), p<0.05. CONCLUSION: Cisatracurium is only effective in preventing succinylcholine-induced fasciculations when a longer pretreatment interval, i.e. 6 min instead of 3 min, is chosen. Precurarization led to signs of paralysis in both pretreatment groups in the majority (75-80%) of patients without reducing the incidence or severity of postoperative myalgia.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Laser Doppler spectroscopy towards the detection of spontaneous muscle activity.

OBJECTIVE: We used laser Doppler spectroscopy to detect hyperactivity of muscle fibers caused by the presence of fibrillations, positive waves and fasciculations. METHODS: The proposed method relies upon the dynamic scattering of light by moving particles, which causes a Doppler shift of the original frequency. For resolution of small alterations in frequency the heterodyne detection was used. One hundred seventy-three normal and 109 EMG diagnosed denervated first dorsal interosseous muscles were examined. RESULTS: Denervated muscles with fasciculations showed significant differentiation from control muscles, whereas denervated muscles without fasciculations were not significantly differentiated. The smallest differentiation compared to controls was seen in chronic denervated muscles without spontaneous activity. CONCLUSIONS: Presence of fasciculations in denervated muscles allowed Doppler spectroscopy to differentiate them from normal muscles. Presence of atrophy reduced the diagnostic potential of the method. SIGNIFICANCE: Our findings can be used as a basis for further improving painless and noninvasive laser Doppler spectroscopy to be used clinically as an alternative to painful and invasive EMG.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Cerebral function and muscle afferent activity following intravenous succinylcholine in dogs anesthetized with halothane: the effects of pretreatment with a defasciculating dose of pancuronium.

The effects of iv succinylcholine (SCh) on cerebral blood flow (CBF), muscle afferent activity (MAA), electromyographic activity (EMG), visible fasciculations, and PaCO2 were tested in 12 dogs anesthetized with 0.87% end-expired halothane (1 MAC). Six dogs (group I) received treatments of both SCh 1.0 mg/kg iv and saline placebo 3.0 ml iv. Fasciculations and substantial increases in EMG activity were observed in all six dogs given SCh. At the onset of fasciculations, there were parallel increases in MAA and CBF to peak values of 466% +/- 77% of control (mean +/- SE) and 136% +/- 5% of control, respectively, at the 1-min measurement point. Thereafter, both MAA and CBF declined toward control values. An additional six dogs (group II) were prepared as above; however, they were pretreated with a defasciculating dose of pancuronium 0.01 mg/kg iv 5 min before being given SCh 1.0 mg/kg. These dogs were also given treatments of saline placebo 3.0 ml iv during another portion of the study. None of these six dogs had visible fasciculations following SCh, and only in one was slight EMG activity detected. Following iv SCh, there were parallel increases in both MAA and CBF. The peak MAA value of 255% +/- 56% of control occurred at the 1-min measurement point and was followed by a gradual decline in MAA. CBF increases were greatest during the periods of greatest MAA (i.e., the 1- to 3-min measurement points). The largest increase in CBF (128% +/- 9% of control) occurred at the 3-min measurement point.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Afferent Pathways↗
PubMed1985

Biochemical changes following suxamethonium. Serum myoglobin, potassium and creatinine kinase changes before commencement of surgery.

Forty patients were investigated for serum myoglobin changes following induction of anaesthesia but before the commencement of surgery. Blood was drawn for potassium, creatinine kinase and serum myoglobin immediately prior to and 5, 10 and 20 minutes after administration of thiopentone 4 mg/kg and suxamethonium 1.2 mg/kg. Twenty patients were given either 2 mg alcuronium or 20 mg gallamine as pretreatment 2 to 3 minutes before the suxamethonium to reduce the fasciculations. Anaesthesia was maintained with artificial ventilation and alcuronium, or spontaneous ventilation with halothane. Serum myoglobin was assayed by radioimmunoassay. All pre-induction myoglobin levels were within the normal range. Of the 20 patients who were not pretreated, six showed a marked rise of serum myoglobin within 5 minutes, increasing to 150-200 micrograms/litre at 20 minutes. The remaining 14 patients had no such rise. No patients in the pretreatment group had any significant rise in serum myoglobin, suggesting that although the fasciculations were not completely abolished, there was protection against one of the effects of suxamethonium on the muscle. Although there was no clear relationship between intensity of fasciculations and increase in serum myoglobin, there was no marked rise in serum myoglobin values in any patient who did not have muscle fasciculations. There were no consistent changes in potassium or creatinine kinase in any group during the period of study.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Attenuation of suxamethonium myalgias. Effect of midazolam and vecuronium.

We studied the incidence of fasciculations and postoperative myalgias in 100 female outpatients who had laparoscopy under thiopentone, N2O, isoflurane anaesthesia. Four groups of 20 patients each were pretreated with saline (group 1), tubocurarine 0.05 mg/kg (group 2), vecuronium 0.006 mg/kg (group 3), or midazolam 0.025 mg/kg (group 4), followed by suxamethonium 1.5 mg/kg. Group 5 received only vecuronium 0.1 mg/kg as relaxant (no suxamethonium). Fasciculations were graded, and postoperative myalgias rated on the first and third postoperative days. In groups 1-5 the incidence of fasciculations was 95, 15, 25, 95 and 0%; the incidence of myalgias on the first day after operation was 70, 45, 65, 75 and 60%, and on the third day after operation 20, 5, 20, 20, and 5%, respectively. We conclude that pretreatment with vecuronium, but not midazolam, decreases the incidence of fasciculations after suxamethonium (p less than 0.05) and that in this patient population, postoperative myalgias appear to be unrelated to the use of suxamethonium.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Response to succinylcholine in porcine malignant hyperthermia.

The purpose of this study was to gain new insights in the role of succinylcholine in the initiation of malignant hyperthermia (MH). The intravenous (i.v.) administration of succinylcholine (2.0 mg/kg) induced fasciculations and masseter spasm in both normal swine and those susceptible to MH. However, the amplitudes and durations of generalized fasciculations were significantly greater in the susceptible animals that subsequently developed a fulminant episode of MH: succinylcholine induced not only tachycardia, hyperthermia, contractures, and increases in PaCO2 and lactate, all classic indicators of an episode, but also an initial severe hypotension. The mean arterial pressure in these swine decreased from 115 +/- 6 mm Hg to 60 +/- 12 mm Hg (mean +/- SD), 1 min after the administration of succinylcholine. Normal swine developed neither cardiovascular effects nor altered metabolism in response to succinylcholine. The pretreatment of animals with a nondepolarizing muscle relaxant (pancuronium 0.1 mg/kg) minimized fasciculations induced by succinylcholine, but did not prevent the hypotension nor episodes of MH in the susceptible swine. In the pretreated and untreated susceptible swine, dantrolene was an equally effective treatment. Plasma catecholamine levels after succinylcholine administration were increased only in the susceptible swine without the pancuronium pretreatment. We concluded that the effects of succinylcholine on skeletal muscle and/or on other tissues play a significant role in the initiation of a MH episode in swine with this genetic disorder, and that these effects are not dependent on an abnormal sensitivity for succinylcholine-induced skeletal muscle fasciculations in these animals.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2002

Can lidocaine reduce succinylcholine induced postoperative myalgia?

This study was undertaken to determine the effect of lidocaine pretreatment on reduction of succinylcholine-induced myalgia in patients undergoing general anesthesia for gynecological surgery. One hundred and thirty-five patients were assigned to one of three groups in a prospective, double blind, randomized manner. Group PS, the control group, received normal saline and succinylcholine 1.5 mg x kg(-1); Group LS, lidocaine 1.5 mg x kg(-1) and succinylcholine 1.5 mg x kg(-1); Group PR, normal saline and rocuronium 0.6 mg x kg(-1). Morphine 0.1 mg x kg(-1) iv was given for premedication and all patients were monitored with a noninvasive blood pressure monitor, ECG and pulse oximetry. Anesthesia was induced with 5 mg.kg(-1) thiopental iv. followed by succinylcholine (Group PS, LS) or rocuronium (Group PR) for tracheal intubation. Following administration of these agents, the presence, and degree of fasciculation were assessed visually on a four point scale by one investigator who was blinded to the drug administered. The blood pressure and heart rate of each patient were monitored on nine occasions. Twenty-four hours later, any myalgia experienced was assessed according to a structured questionaire and graded by a four point scale by one investigator blinded to the intraoperative management. The results indicate that muscle fasciculation was not found in Group PR while the patients in Group LS had a lower incidence of muscle fasciculation than those in Group PS (p < 0.001). At 24 h, the incidence of myalgia was higher in Group PS than in Group LS and PR (p < 0.05). A correlation was not found between the incidence of myalgia and the occurrence of muscle fasciculation. The changes in systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate were not significant among the three groups. In conclusion, where succinylcholine is used, lidocaine is proven to be the useful pretreatment agent for the reduction of postoperative myalgia.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Increased creatine kinase and spontaneous activity on electromyography, in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

INTRODUCTION: Mild to moderate elevation of muscle creatine kinase (CK) is commonly observed in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Although the determinants of increased the CK in ALS remain uncertain, we hypothesize that fasciculations and muscle denervation can be involved by damaging the muscle fibre. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We studied 87 ALS patients in whom CK determination was performed. In 47, a standardized EMG investigation was performed. In 22 patients a second CK determination was performed a mean of 5 months later. CK values were compared between different patients arranged in groups as determined by the number of regions with fasciculation as detected on the clinical examination, and the number of muscles with fasciculation or with fibrillation potentials as observed on EMG. RESULTS: 43% of our population had an increased CK value. Four out of 5 patients with suspected ALS had an increased CK value. The number of patients with increased CK value was not different between sexes, or between bulbar and spinal-onset patients. CK value was not related with disease duration, and did not change at the second measurement. CK value was not different between the groups studied. CONCLUSION: The fasciculations,and the signs of denervation on EMG, are not determinants for high CK values in ALS patients, which are still unknown. Increased CK can be useful in the differential diagnosis of patients with lower motor neuron disorders.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

[Electromyographic response to precurarization with vecuronium bromide].

OBJECTIVE: To analyze electromyographic response and clinical effects after precurarization with vecuronium bromide (0.01 mg/Kg), also noting intubation conditions and the presence or not of fasciculations after administration of succinylcholine (1.5 mg/Kg). PATIENTS AND METHODS: A single precurarization dose of vecuronium was administered to 20 patients 5 minutes before anesthetic induction for general surgery. During this period we monitored neuromuscular transmission of the cubital nerve in the wrist by electromyography with a series of 4 stimuli, expressing each as the percentage of the first response and of the ratio T4/T1. We also recorded clinical repercussions. General anesthesia was then induced; after administration of succinylcholine, the presence or not of fasciculations was noted and intubation conditions were evaluated. RESULTS: The electromyographic response after precurarization was highly variable, as 4 different responses were recorded. We found potentiation phenomena in 20% of our patients, diminished response in 60%, fatigue phenomena in 15% and no change in 5%. Clinical signs noted were blurred vision and heavy eyelids. Fasciculations disappeared in 95% of the patients and intubation conditions were excellent. CONCLUSIONS: Vecuronium at a precurarization dose produces highly varied but well-tolerated electromyographic responses. The drug is effective in eliminating fasciculations produced by succinylcholine and does not affect intubation conditions.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Diisopropylphosphorofluoridate-induced cholinergic hyperactivity and lipid peroxidation.

In the present study, the association between acetylcholine (ACh)-induced muscle necrosis and the appearance of lipid peroxidation products was investigated. Lipid peroxidation in this injury was quantified by the malondialdehyde-thiobarbituric acid complex (TBA-MDA) using HPLC. To induce muscle necrosis, rats were treated with 1.0 or 2.0 mg/kg diisopropylphosphorofluoridate (DFP), an irreversible inhibitor of AChE that induced muscle fasciculations, and were euthanized 30-120 min after the DFP treatment. DFP caused a dose-dependent increase in AChE inhibition, muscle fasciculations, TBA-MDA formation, and muscle necrosis. Reduction of glutathione (GSH) by pretreatment with buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) potentiated the DFP-induced changes in TBA-MDA and caused an increase in the number of necrotic muscle fibers. Prevention of fasciculations by pretreatment with cholinergic antagonists such as atropine and d-tubocurarine, before DFP, inhibited the increase in lipid peroxidation, and significantly attenuated the muscle fiber necrosis. Without affecting muscle fasciculations, the antioxidant U-78517F prevented the increase in lipid peroxidation and reduced the number of muscle fibers that became necrotic. It is suggested that DFP-induced AChE inhibition causes pronounced muscle hyperactivity as the initial step that triggers free radical-induced lipid peroxidation as the final common pathway to muscle injury.

3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine↗
PubMed1989

Attenuation of soman-induced lesions of skeletal muscle by acetylcholinesterase reactivating and non-reactivating antidotes.

It has been reported recently that some oximes reactivating acetylcholinesterase (AChE) exhibit concomitant ganglion-blocking effects which presumably could contribute independently to their powerful antidotal action in organophosphate inhibitor (OPI) poisoning, thus mimicking some unrelated substances which are effective antidotes without reactivating AChE. This raises the question whether OPI-induced muscle lesions, like some other symptoms could also be attenuated by oximes and other antidotes in the absence of AChE reactivation. To test this possibility, the oxime HI-6 was applied at increasing time intervals after the injection of soman until and beyond the point when soman-AChE complex becomes completely "aged" and not capable of reactivation. As the examples of OPI antidotes which do not reactivate AChE, the muscarinic antagonist atropine and the ganglion-blocking agent hexamethonium were also tested on possible attenuation of muscle lesions. The proportions of fibers with lesions, AChE inhibition and muscle fasciculations in experimental groups relative to the controls treated with soman only were evaluated. The results show that HI-6 can attenuate lesions only if AChE is partially reactivated and muscle fasciculations are permanently eliminated. However, atropine does not affect either AChE inhibition or muscle fasciculations and is also ineffective in counteracting the lesions in spite of its potency as an effective general antidote. Hexamethonium also does not affect AChE inhibition, but abolishes fasciculations and effectively attenuates muscle lesions. The latter findings reveal the existence of lesion-protecting mechanisms unrelated to AChE reactivation, which if further elucidated might become potentially relevant for additional treatment in OPI poisoning.

Acetylcholinesterase↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Lipid peroxidation and changes in cytochrome c oxidase and xanthine oxidase activity in organophosphorus anticholinesterase induced myopathy.

A possible role of radical oxygen species (ROS) initiated lipid peroxidation in diisopropylphosphorofluoridate (DFP)-induced muscle necrosis was investigated by quantifying muscle changes in F2-isoprostanes, novel and extremely accurate markers of lipid peroxidation in vivo. A significant increase in F2-isoprostanes of 56% was found in the diaphragm of rats 60 min after DFP-induced fasciculations. As possible source of ROS initiating lipid peroxidation, the cytocrome-c oxidase (Cyt-ox) and xanthine dehydrogenase-xanthine oxidase (XD-XO) systems were investigated. Within 30 min of onset of fasciculations Cyt-ox activity was reduced by 50% from 0.526 to 0.263 mumol/mg prot/min and XO activity increased from 0.242 to 0.541 mumol/mg prot/min. Total XD-XO activity was unchanged, indicating a conversion from XD into XO. In rats pretreatment with the neuromuscular blocking agent d-tubocurarine, prevented DFP-induced fasciculations, increases in F2-isoprostanes and changes in Cyt-ox or XD-XO. The decrease in Cyt-ox and increase in XO suggest that ROS are produced during DFP induced muscle fasciculations initiating lipid peroxidation and subsequent myopathy.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Neuron-glia interactions during axon guidance in Drosophila.

Axons navigate to trace stereotypic trajectories over an environment often rich in glial cells. Once axonal trajectories are defined, their structuring proceeds through multiple fasciculation and defasciculation events, to finally establish the mature bundles. Fasciculation and ensheathment also proceed in close association between axons and glial cells, and ultimately require glia. The cross-talk between axons and glia during axon guidance is manifested in: (i) axonal fasciculation and bundling, promoted by glia; (ii) growth cone guidance, as glia function as guidepost cells at choice points; (iii) glial migration patterns, which are influenced by neurons; (iv) cell survival control, which constrains position and number of both cell types; and (iv) connectivity, where an axon contacts its final target aided by glial cells. Understanding the reciprocal interactions between neurons and glia during guidance and fasciculation is absolutely necessary to implement repair of axonal trajectories upon damage. Drosophila can be used as a model system for these purposes.

Animals↗