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PubMed2026

Involvement of cross-genus phages in bacterial resistance to chlorine disinfection.

Chlorine disinfection resistance in pathogenic microorganisms poses severe environmental concerns and public health risks. While phages play critical roles in host adaptation to environmental stress, how poly-host phages contribute to bacterial resistance to chlorine disinfectants remains poorly understood. Here, we investigated shifts in the population dynamics, transcriptional profiles, and function potentials of cross-genus phage-bacterial communities under exposure to chlorine disinfectants in a continuously operated anaerobic-anoxic-oxic system over a 92-day period, using integrated metagenomic and metatranscriptomic approaches. In the presence and absence of chlorine disinfectants, the genomic abundance and diversity of phage and bacterial communities showed similar variation trends, and the community structures of both exhibited clear differences. A strong significant positive correlation was observed between phage and bacterial diversity under chlorine exposure (R = 0.975, p = 0.00,057), whereas no significant correlation was detected in the absence of chlorine disinfection (R = -0.314, p = 0.613), suggesting that chlorine disinfectants may enhance phage-bacteria interactions. Host-associated phages exhibited high consistency with their corresponding putative hosts in terms of genomic abundance (M2 = 0.0945, p = 0.001) and transcript abundance (M2 = 0.3668, p = 0.001), and they were also significantly correlated with cross-genus phages in both genomic abundance (R = 0.97, p < 2.2e-16) and transcript abundance (R = 0.83, p < 2.2e-16), which collectively suggests the critical role of cross-genus phages in the resistance of microbial communities to chlorine disinfectants. Bipartite association network analysis shows that cross-genus phages carry highly homologous genes to their putative hosts and may be involved in the horizontal transfer of these genes among bacteria. These homologous genes are involved in DNA repair, redox balance regulation, environmental stress adaptation and efflux pump functions, suggesting a synergistic role between cross-genus phages and their putative hosts in chlorine resistance. Our findings reveal that cross-genus phages can contribute to the resistance of bacterial communities to chlorine disinfectants, providing the theoretical foundation for evaluating the role of poly-host phages in microbial communities.

Chlorine resistance↗

PubMed1983

Antiviral activity of an alcoholic hand disinfectant. Comparison of the in vitro suspension test with in vivo experiments on hands, and on individual fingertips.

The inactivation of eleven viruses by a commercial alcoholic hand disinfectant ("Desderman') was tested by three different procedures, viz., in vitro in a standardized suspension test, in vivo on the entire surface of both hands, and in vivo on individual fingertips of a single volunteer. The test protocols were chosen such as to make results comparable. The influence of varying disinfectant/virus volume ratios, serum protein loads, and reaction temperatures was evaluated in vitro, and partly demonstrated in vivo. In some experiments, 5% formaldehyde was included as a reference disinfectant. The experiments support the prevailing concept, that enveloped viruses are considerably more susceptible to alcoholic disinfection than naked ones. Additionally, enveloped viruses were shown to be subject to more "spontaneous' decay on skin. The main result of the study appears to be that the in vitro model predicted a greater effectiveness of the disinfectant than was observed in vivo both in the "hand' test and the "finger' test, although some differences were noted between these tests. Reasons for the lesser in vivo inactivation may lie in the evaporation of the disinfectant with ensuing changes in disinfectant/virus volume ratio, effective temperature, and inactivation time, all shown to influence disinfection. Other mechanisms such as a "sheltering' effect of the skin may have also been operating. The results suggest that, at the present stand of knowledge, in vitro screening tests should be complemented by in vivo tests for the evaluation of antiviral hand disinfectants.

Alcohols↗

PubMed2006

Effect of a 1 min hand wash on the bactericidal efficacy of consecutive surgical hand disinfection with standard alcohols and on skin hydration.

BACKGROUND: In most surgical theatres, a 1 min or even longer hand wash is routine as part of the pre-operative hand disinfection. But its benefit has recently been seen critically. METHODS: We have therefore investigated the effect of a 1 min hand wash on skin hydration and on the efficacy of consecutive surgical hand rubbing with three standard alcohols (60% propan-1-ol, 60% propan-2-ol, 80% ethanol; all v/v) on the resident hand flora. Three types of treatment were performed: (i) a 1 min pre-wash before surgical hand disinfection, (ii) no pre-wash before surgical hand disinfection and (iii) no pre-wash but use of a brush for 1 min during disinfection procedure. The efficacy of the alcohols was determined according to prEN 12791 with the same 20 volunteers in paired groups. To assess the effect of the hand wash on skin hydration, 10 volunteers washed their hands with sapo kalinus for 1 min and dried hands with a paper towel. Skin hydration was measured with a corneometer before the hand wash and subsequently up to 10 min thereafter both on the palm and dorsum of hands. We also tested the reduction of bacterial spores by a 15 s hand wash according to EN 1499 after artificial contamination of hands of 14 volunteers with spores of B. stearothermophilus. RESULTS: Propan-1-ol (60%) was most effective with a mean log10 reduction of 2.11, followed by ethanol (80%) with a mean log10 reduction of 1.76 and propan-2-ol (60%) with a mean log10 reduction of 0.57 (all immediate effect without hand wash). The efficacy of the alcohols was neither significantly improved nor impaired by a preceding 1 min hand wash, but there is a trend towards better efficacy on dry hands. Using a brush for 1 min during disinfection resulted in a better efficacy with all alcohols. An anaylsis of variance revealed that the immediate effect of ethanol (p = 0.013) and propan-2-ol (p = 0.001) is significantly influenced by the variation of treatments which is mainly explained by the effect of brushing during disinfection. But no significant difference between treatment variations was found in the sustained effect with any of the alcohols. Skin hydration increased significantly by a 1 min hand wash for up to 10 min despite drying hands with a paper towel. A 15 s hand wash reduced the number of bacterial spores significantly from log10 3.84 to log10 1.99 (p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: There is no benefit of a hand wash as part of surgical hand disinfection except that a short hand wash of 15 s can effectively reduce spores. The best time for this short hand wash is at the beginning of work in hospital, but at the latest in the sluice of the operating theatre about 10 min before applying an alcohol-based hand rub to give the skin enough time to dry.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Effectiveness of a manual disinfection procedure in eliminating hepatitis C virus from experimentally contaminated endoscopes.

BACKGROUND: Transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) through endoscopy has been reported, but the implications as a public health concern remain controversial. This study investigated the degree to which a thorough manual cleaning-washing-disinfection procedure can decontaminate all channels of a flexible submersible endoscope experimentally contaminated with HCV. METHODS: To assess the accuracy of the method currently in use, the initial investigation focused on sampling effectiveness. Nine endoscopes were contaminated with high-titer HCV-positive plasma and flushed with 150 mL of sampling solution (distilled water) before disinfection. To assess the effectiveness of the disinfection procedure, the following sequence was performed on another 10 endoscopes: inoculation, disinfection, and sampling. After concentration residual viruses were detected by means of RNA amplification with commercial assays. RESULTS: The study showed that sampling alone can reduce viral titer to one-fourth its original value. Within the limits of this method, HCV RNA was never detected by means of polymerase chain reaction after disinfection, whereas all internal amplification controls were positive. This reduction to less than 1/100,000 of original titer exceeds the criterion expected for the virucidal activity of disinfectants. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this in vitro experiment provided evidence that patient-to-patient endoscopic transmission HCV can be reduced, if not eliminated, with the current mechanical cleaning-washing-disinfection procedure.

Disinfectants↗

PubMed1998

Effectiveness of chlorine dioxide in disinfection on two soft denture liners.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM: Soft tissue denture liners frequently require replacement that necessitates complete removal from the denture base. A high speed lathe located in a "clean laboratory" is often used to facilitate removal of these materials, but it is unclear whether routine disinfection procedures reduce bacterial contamination sufficiently to prevent contamination of the laboratory. PURPOSE: The first phase of this study evaluated the effectiveness of 3-minute chlorine dioxide spray and immersion disinfection procedures on 2 denture liners (Coe Soft and Coe Comfort) and stainless steel specimens used as controls. The second phase evaluated the effectiveness of spray disinfection at time intervals of 1, 3, and 10 minutes. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Specimens made of soft denture liners attached to acrylic resin bases (10 per group) were contaminated with Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans. Colony-forming units were counted after different disinfection techniques were applied. Kruskal-Wallis 1-way analysis of variance on ranks and an all pairwise multiple comparison procedures (Dunn's method) were used to test for significant differences among test groups at the P <.05 level of significance. RESULTS: Chlorine dioxide was effective against nonporous stainless steel specimens but was inadequate for denture liners at the recommended 3-minute time of disinfection. The immersion technique was more effective than the spray technique, but the difference was not significant. Increasing the time of disinfection did not significantly reduce the numbers of microorganisms. CONCLUSION: Coe Soft and Coe Comfort denture liners should be removed before entering the laboratory. These materials contain sufficient viable bacteria after routine disinfection procedures to cause contamination of the "clean laboratory."

Aerosols↗

PubMed2002

Disinfection procedures: their effect on the dimensional accuracy and surface quality of irreversible hydrocolloid impression materials and gypsum casts.

OBJECTIVES: This study primarily investigated the effect of disinfection procedures (Perform and sodium hypochlorite) on the dimensional accuracy and surface quality of four irreversible hydrocolloid impression materials and the resultant gypsum casts. The antibacterial efficacy of the procedures was also studied. METHODS: Dimensional accuracy was determined from the mean percentage deviation of six measurements taken from casts made from disinfected impressions compared with corresponding measurements from the master model and controls. Statistical analysis of data was determined by analysis of variance. Surface quality was determined using a stainless steel test block in accordance with ISO 1563. RESULTS: The dimensional accuracy of the impression materials tested were of a comparable standard following disinfection. The surface quality of casts taken from Blueprint Cremix impressions were unaffected by the disinfection procedures. The remaining impression materials studied showed greater surface deterioration on casts following disinfection with sodium hypochlorite than immersion in Perform. All disinfection procedures selected proved appropriate for antibacterial purposes. SIGNIFICANCE: Individual analysis of impression materials is required to determine their suitability to a given disinfection protocol.

Alginates↗

PubMed1993

Efficacy of a disinfectant wipe method for the removal of adenovirus 8 from tonometer tips.

PURPOSE: To determine the efficacy of a disinfectant wipe method in eliminating adenovirus 8 from both Goldmann tonometer and pneumotonometer tips, and to determine the efficacy of 5-minute disinfectant soaks in removing the virus from Goldmann tonometer tips. METHOD: Quantification of adenovirus 8 in the ocular secretions of six infected patients was performed. Clinically relevant inocula of adenovirus 8 were then prepared in a serum suspension which was used to contaminate Goldmann tonometer and pneumotonometer tips. Each contaminated tip was subjected to either a dry wipe or a wipe with one of the following: water, isopropyl alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and iodophor. The tips were than quantitatively assayed for residual adenovirus 8. Disinfectant soaks were similarly assessed using contaminated Goldmann tonometer tips soaked in water, hydrogen peroxide, iodophor, and sodium hypochlorite. RESULTS: Adenovirus 8 was recovered from both types of tonometer tips after dry wipes, but no viable virus was recovered from tips wiped with water only or with any of the disinfectants tested. Adenovirus 8 also was recovered from Goldmann tonometer tips that were either rinsed or soaked in water; no virus was recovered from tips soaked for 5 minutes in any of the disinfectants tested. CONCLUSION: A disinfectant wipe method using isopropyl alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, or iodophor is effective in removing adenovirus 8 from both Goldmann tonometer and pneumotonometer tips. Five-minute disinfectant soaks also are effective for Goldmann tonometer tips.

Adenovirus Infections, Human↗

PubMed2006

Tonometers and infectious risk: myth or reality? Efficacy of different disinfection regimens on tonometer tips.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the adequacy of common disinfection regimens for disposable tonometer tips and assess if disinfection of reusable prisms or the use of disposable tips is preferable. METHODS: We used disposable tonometer tips, using the same material and tip diameter of standard Goldmann tonometer prism. Strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilisand Candida albicanswere tested according to the European standard guidelines for disinfectants test. Antimicrobial effectiveness of the following disinfection practices has been assessed: dry wipe, Minuten wipes (Alpro), soaking in 3% hydrogen peroxide, 0.5% benzalkonium chloride, and 0.5% Pantasept for 1, 5, and 15 min. All tests have been performed three times and all conditions tested in duplicate. RESULTS: Dry wiping and 1 min soak in 3% hydrogen peroxide were ineffective on all microrganisms. Minuten wipes, 1 min soak in 0.5% benzalkonium chloride or 3% hydrogen peroxide were ineffective on B. subtilis. 0.5% Pantasept soak was effective in 1 min for all microrganisms tested, whereas 3% hydrogen peroxide and 0.5% benzalkonium chloride soaks were effective when performed for at least 5 min. B. subtiliswas the most resistant organism to disinfectant regimes at 1 min time. CONCLUSIONS: Results of our study demonstrate a relative disinfection efficacy for the different evaluated regimens, provided that correct exposure times are adopted for the chosen disinfectants, a condition difficult to ensure in a busy clinic setting. We conclude that disposable prism tonometry provides a safe alternative to Goldmann tonometry.

Anti-Infective Agents, Local↗

PubMed1999

Disinfection of hospital waste sludge using hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide.

Hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide were used to disinfect hospital waste-water sludge. Their abilities to inactivate pathogenic micro-organisms were compared. Reductions in indigenous coliform organisms and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were estimated. The results indicate that hypochlorite is a better disinfectant than chlorine dioxide for coliforms. Higher disinfection efficiency was obtained by treating a lower concentration of sludge. In addition, a higher agitation speed gave a higher disinfection efficiency with hypochlorite. The disinfection efficiencies of both disinfectants were higher against settled sludge than against thickened sludge. Therefore, it is recommended that disinfection should be performed on settled sludge rather than in a thickening tank.

Chlorine Compounds↗

PubMed2002

Effective control of dental chair unit waterline biofilm and marked reduction of bacterial contamination of output water using two peroxide-based disinfectants.

Bacterial biofilm in dental unit waterlines (DUWs) is a widespread problem, and poses a potentially significant risk of infection to dental staff and patients, particularly those who are medically compromised or immunocompromised. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the level of bacterial contamination of dental chair unit output water in the Dublin Dental Hospital, and to investigate the efficacy of two hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants in reducing bacterial loads to < or =200 cfu/mL as recommended by the American Dental Association. The chemical quality of dental chair unit input and output water was well within the limits recommended for potable water. Water supplied to the units yielded an average aerobic heterotrophic bacterial cell density of 184 cfu/mL. However, the corresponding density in output water was considerably higher; the average cell density in water from the three-in-one air/water syringes and cup fillers in 12 chairs was 8200 and 4300 cfu/mL, respectively. Dental unit water obtained from 18 separate reservoir-supplied units in general practices in the Dublin area yielded an average of 66000 cfu/mL. The bacterial species found were predominantly environmental organisms, which were also present at low levels in the input water. Some of the species identified (e.g., Burkholderia cepacia and Pseudomonas fluorescens) are known opportunistic pathogens. The capacity of two disinfectants, Sterilex Ultra and Sanosil, to reduce bacterial contamination to safe levels was compared. In a controlled study, once weekly overnight (15 h) disinfection using either agent reduced the bacterial density to below the American Dental Association recommended level of 200 cfu/mL. However, once disinfection ceased the bacterial loads increased to unacceptably high levels within three weeks. Electron microscopic analysis showed that both disinfectants markedly reduced biofilm in the DUWs, but the biofilm rapidly became extensive again when once weekly disinfection ceased. While both disinfectants were equally effective in lowering the bacterial counts to acceptable levels, Sterilex Ultra was associated with clogging of DUWs in some dental chair units after repeated usage, suggesting that Sanosil is a more suitable agent for routine use.

Biofilms↗

PubMed2006

Evaluation of the effectiveness of an enzymatic cleaner and glutaraldehyde-based disinfectant for chemothermal processing of flexible endoscopes in washer-disinfectors in accordance with prEN ISO 15 883.

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS: This study evaluated the effectiveness of the cleaning process, the disinfection process, and a combination of the two in accordance with the new international standard, prEN ISO 15 883. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The cleaning process consisted of a 1-min prerinse at 20 degrees C, followed by a 5-min cleaning step at 45 degrees C (with an enzymatic cleaner, 0.5 %), followed by a 1-min interim rinse from 45 degrees C to 55 degrees C. The disinfection process consisted of a 1-min prerinse at 20 degrees C, followed by a 5-min disinfection step at 55 degrees C (with a glutaraldehyde-based disinfectant, 1 %), followed by two final rinses of 1 min each at 55 degrees C. Transparent test pieces were contaminated with a mixture of blood and ENTEROCOCCUS FAECIUM, and were assessed for visible cleanliness and microbial load. RESULTS: Cleaning alone, disinfection alone, and the combination of the two always led to visible cleanliness of all test pieces. The cleaning process revealed a mean reduction factor of > or = 4.6 (n = 6); the disinfection process revealed a mean reduction factor of > or = 9.0 (n = 6), and the combination of the two was found to reduce the test organism in the WD440 by 9.0 +/- 0.2 log (10) steps (n = 12) and in the AdaptaScope by 9.3 +/- 0.4 log (10) steps (n = 5). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the entire process was found to be very effective and compatible for reprocessing flexible endoscopes in washer-disinfectors. No visible residual blood was found, despite the use of glutaraldehyde in the disinfection phase. These findings once again emphasize the importance of effective cleaning for the overall results when reprocessing flexible endoscopes.

Disinfectants↗

PubMed1990

Efficacy of a variety of disinfectants against Listeria spp.

The efficacy of 14 disinfectants against Listeria innocua and two strains of Listeria monocytogenes in the presence of organic matter was studied. Quantitative efficacy tests were used. Many of the disinfectants tested were not as effective on Listeria spp. when the test organisms were dried onto the surface of steel disks (carrier tests) as they were when the organisms were placed in suspension (suspension test). The presence of whole serum and milk (2% fat) further reduced the disinfectant capacities of most of the formulations studied. Only three disinfectants (povidone-iodine, chlorhexidine gluconate, and glutaraldehyde) were effective in the carrier test in the presence of serum; however, all three were ineffective when challenged with milk (2% fat). Only one solution, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, was effective in the presence of milk. All but four formulations (chloramine-T, phosphoric acid, an iodophor, and formaldehyde) were effective in the suspension tests, regardless of the organic load. L. monocytogenes was observed to be slightly more resistant to disinfection than L. innocua was. There was no difference in disinfectant susceptibility between the two strains of L. monocytogenes. These findings emphasize the need for caution in selecting an appropriate disinfectant for use on contaminated surfaces, particularly in the presence of organic material.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Microbial resistance to disinfectants: mechanisms and significance.

Drinking water disinfection provides the final barrier to transmission of a wide variety of potentially waterborne infectious agents including pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. These agents differ greatly in their innate resistance to inactivation by disinfectants, ranging from extremely sensitive bacteria to highly resistant protozoan cysts. The close similarity between microorganism inactivation rates and the kinetics of chemical reactions has long been recognized. Ideally, under carefully controlled conditions, microorganism inactivation rates simulate first-order chemical reaction rates, making it possible to predict the effectiveness of disinfection under specific conditions. In practice, changes in relative resistance and deviations from first-order kinetics are caused by a number of factors, including microbial growth conditions, aggregation, and association with particulate materials. The net effect of all these factors is a reduction in the effectiveness and predictability of disinfection processes. To ensure effective pathogen control, disinfectant concentrations and contact times greater than experimentally determined values may be required. Of the factors causing enhanced disinfection resistance, protection by association with particulate matter is the most significant. Therefore, removal of particulate matter is an important step in increasing the effectiveness of disinfection processes.

Cell Division↗

PubMed1990

[Microbiological evaluation of chemical disinfectants for household use].

Five disinfectants for household use were advertised on television during 1988 and the first half of 1989. The products were tested by a qualitative (Use-Dilution with 10 carriers, a conventional and simplified, adapted method) and a qualitative, adapted method with a view to evaluating their antimicrobial activity. The active compounds of the products, according to their respective labels were: 1--Parachlorophenol (0-Benzil) 0.1%; 2--Eter 2.4.4' Chloro (III) 2' hydroxiphenylic 0.1%; 3--N-alkyl dimethylbenzyl ammonium chlorides, N-alkyl dimethylethybenzyl ammonium 50%-1.6%; 4--Formaldehyde 37% (0.3% solution); 5--No information. The microorganisms used were: Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442 and Salmonella choleraesuis ATCC 10708. In the qualitative method the pseudomonas strain was recovered from disinfectants 1, 2, and 3 and the salmonella strain from disinfectants 2 and 3. All disinfectants showed germicidal effect 5.0 (99.999%) of reduction) in 15 seconds against all strains. Disinfectant 3 was contaminated with Enterobacter sp to the order of 10(4) cells/ml. This contaminant was sensitive against disinfectants 1, 4 and 5, in the qualitative method and had a relative resistance to disinfectant 2 in the quantitative method.

Disinfectants↗

PubMed2006

Disinfection of secondary effluents using tin oxide anodes.

Direct current applied to a tin oxide anode submersed in water has the potential to generate hydroxyl radicals, a strong chemical oxidant. Tin oxide anode systems, which may represent a viable alternative disinfectant, were investigated for the disinfection of secondary effluents. Coliform bacteria in the effluent were effectively inactivated in a bench-scale tin oxide disinfection system. The number of anodes in the tin oxide disinfection system influenced the steady-state concentration of hydroxyl radicals and, consequently, the contact time necessary to achieve a specified dose. The life expectancy of the anodes was greater than 30 days and no appreciable loss of tin was observed over a 5-day period. A preliminary estimate of the capital and operating costs of a pilot- or full-scale tin oxide disinfection system designed to meet a discharge requirement of 23 most probable number/100 mL at a 3 785-m3/d (1-mgd) facility was comparable to UV and chlorination/dechlorination facilities. Based on this preliminary assessment, tin oxide disinfection systems are a promising alternative disinfectant for secondary effluents.

Disinfectants↗

PubMed2006

Evaluation of disinfection techniques in the treatment of advanced primary treated wastewater for Ciudad Juárez, México.

The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of alternative disinfection techniques at the bench-scale level using wastewater from Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, as model feed. This paper presents findings on the effectiveness of UV radiation, peracetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) as disinfectants for advanced primary treatment (APT) plant effluent. Wastewater samples for bench-scale testing were collected from an agua negra ("black water") ditch that is part of the combined sewer system in Ciudad Juarez. Bench-scale simulations of the APT process used in Ciudad Juarez were run using a jar test apparatus and aluminum sulfate [Al2(SO4)3] as the coagulant. Jar test effluent from the bench system was used for disinfection testing. The Mexican discharge quality standard for total coliforms is 10 000/100 mL. Ultraviolet radiation met this standard at a dose of 47.5 mW-s/cm2. Ultraviolet disinfection proved reliable and effective despite the presence of suspended solids, and UV dose effectiveness expressed as a total coliforms survival ratio was best explained by a linear regression model. The ClO2 dose ranged from 10 to 20 mg/L and was only effective under ambient temperature conditions found during the winter months; PAA disinfection never met Mexican standards. Chlorine disinfection was effective at a dose range of 8 to 10 mg/L on samples collected at low temperature conditions. Since the completion of this research, Ciudad Juarez has discontinued the use of chlorine disinfection because of its high cost and ineffectiveness.

Chlorine Compounds↗

PubMed2005

Evaluation of the efficacy of disinfectant footbaths as used in veterinary hospitals.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate efficacy of 2 disinfectants as used in footbaths in veterinary hospitals for reducing bacterial contamination of footwear. DESIGN: Prospective study. SAMPLE POPULATION: Bacteria collected from the soles of rubber boots after experimental contamination and exposure to disinfectant solutions or control conditions. PROCEDURES: Investigators contaminated boots by walking through soiled straw animal bedding. Swab samples were collected from the sole of 1 boot (right or left) without treatment. The other boot was briefly immersed in a disinfectant solution (either a quaternary ammonium compound [QAC] or a peroxygen compound) or water, and samples were collected after 7 minutes. Differences associated with the experimental treatments were analyzed statistically. Veterinary teaching hospitals (VTHs) in the United States and Canada were contacted to obtain information about the use of footbaths. RESULTS: Mean bacterial concentrations from peroxygen-treated boots were 67% to 78% lower, compared with samples taken from untreated boots. In contrast, there were no statistically detectable differences in mean bacterial concentrations in samples taken from QAC- or water-treated boots, compared with control boots. Disinfectant footbaths were reportedly used in 30 of 31 VTHs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Disinfectant solution containing peroxygen applied in a footbath reduced bacterial concentrations on rubber boots under conditions representative of those found in VTHs. Footbaths are commonly used as a method to control infectious diseases in veterinary hospitals. Disinfectant footbaths should not be expected to sterilize footwear, but they may help in reducing the risk for nosocomial infection when used with effective disinfectants.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Evaluation of the efficacy of a peroxygen disinfectant-filled footmat for reduction of bacterial load on footwear in a large animal hospital setting.

OBJECTIVE-To compare the efficacy of a peroxygenbased disinfectant used in footbaths with the efficacy of the same disinfectant used in footmats for reducing bacterial contamination of footwear in a large animal hospital. DESIGN-Prospective study. SAMPLE POPULATION-Bacteria recovered from the soles of rubber boots after experimental microbial contamination and exposure to disinfectant solutions or water (water-treated control boots) or no treatment (untreated control boots). PROCEDURES-Investigators contaminated boots by walking through soiled animal bedding. Swab samples were collected from the sole of 1 untreated boot (right or left); the other boot was treated as investigators stepped through a disinfectant-filled footbath, a disinfectant-filled footmat, or water-filled footmat. Samples were collected 10 minutes after each treatment. Differences in numbers of bacteria recovered from treated and untreated boots were analyzed. RESULTS-Mean bacterial counts from peroxygentreated boots were 1.3 to 1.4 log(10) lower (95.4% to 99.8%) than the counts from untreated boots. Results were similar for footmat- and footbath-treated boots. In contrast, there were no statistically detectable differences in mean bacterial counts in samples collected from water-treated or untreated boots. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE-Results suggest that footmats and footbaths containing peroxygenbased disinfectant are effective in reducing bacterial contamination on the soles of boots when used in conditions representative of large animal hospitals. Similar results were achieved with use of either footmats or footbaths. The use of footbaths and footmats containing effective disinfectants may help decrease the risk for spread of nosocomial infection but should not be expected to sterilize footwear.

Animals↗