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PubMed2002

Economic messages in prescription drug advertisements in medical journals.

BACKGROUND: The extent to which pharmaceutical companies promote the economic advantages of their products in advertisements in medical journals, and whether such claims are supported by evidence, has not been quantified. Our objectives were to examine how often prescription drug advertisements in leading medical journals contain economic messages, and to determine the types of promotional claims made and whether supporting evidence is provided. METHODS: All prescription drug advertisements appearing in six leading general medical and specialty journals in 3 selected months annually from 1990 to 1999 were reviewed. Using a standard data collection form, two reviewers examined each ad for economic content-including mention of the drug's price, value, cost saving, or cost-effectiveness. RESULTS: Economic messages appeared in 237 (11.1%) of the 2144 advertisements examined. Proportion of ads with economic content has increased over time (P = 0.003). Most frequently, economic ads contained statements that drugs were "less expensive" or "cost less" than alternative treatments (50.6% of economic ads). Supporting evidence for economic claims was clearly reported in 63.7% of cases, and typically referred to published drug prices rather than more detailed economic analysis. Ads for calcium channel blocking agents and ACE inhibitors frequently contained economic messages. CONCLUSIONS: Economic messages about prescription drugs are used in advertisements in leading medical journals and their frequency may be rising. Physicians should be aware of this phenomenon, and its potential impact on their prescribing decisions. More scrutiny of the supporting evidence underlying economic claims by the medical community and regulators may be needed.

Advertising↗
PubMed2000

A content analysis of television advertising for the Massachusetts Tobacco Control Program media campaign, 1993-1996.

Television advertising for the Massachusetts Tobacco Control Program (MTCP) was launched in 1993. The campaign's first three years were examined against an analytical framework based in behavioral change and communications theory. The most common focus in the 49 advertisements was tobacco industry practices, followed by health consequences for smokers and smoking prevention. Only one smoking prevention advertisement was targeted to children younger that age 13. Only four advertisements mentioned policy actions to reduce youth access or curtail exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. Only two advertisements listed the telephone number for the MTCP's smoking cessation program. The television campaign was uncoordinated with the MTCP's community-level programs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

The limitations of econometric analysis in cigarette advertising studies.

Econometric analysis of the relationship between advertising and smoking has assumed a position of prominence in debate between public health and tobacco industry interests. Econometric methods are intrinsically limited in their ability to address the essential qualitative nature of advertising because they are obliged to assign arbitrary quantitative values to a medium where such assignation is highly debatable. The same problems occur when econometric methods attempt to assign values to other qualitative variables like health education campaigns and changing cultural factors relevant to smoking. Rather than commencing with the question 'what does advertising to do people', an alternative research paradigm which asks 'what do people do with advertising' should underpin research into advertising 'effects'.

Advertising↗
PubMed1990

Reinforcing effects of cigarette advertising on under-age smoking.

Interviews were conducted with 848 Glasgow children aged between 11 and 14 years. There were consistent differences between smokers and non-smokers. Smokers tended to be more adept at recalling, recognizing and identifying cigarette advertisements. This suggests they tend to pay more attention to cigarette advertising. Smokers also tended to be generally more appreciative of cigarette advertising. Moreover, this greater awareness and appreciation of cigarette advertising was independent of other important predictors of under-age smoking, such as smoking by peers, siblings and parents. These findings, taken in conjunction with previous research, indicate that cigarette advertising is reinforcing under-age smoking. The smokers showed an enhanced or heightened preference for Kensitas Club, the brand favoured by adults. This is consistent with previous research indicating that promotional devices which help determine and reinforce adult cigarette brand preferences have an even greater effect on under-age smokers.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Advertising, price, income and publicity effects on weekly cigarette sales in New Zealand supermarkets.

Total cigarettes (all brands) sold weekly by a panel of 60 New Zealand supermarkets were monitored electronically for 42 weeks, a period when cigarette advertisements were in plain format with strong, varied disease warnings. Real cigarette price, newspaper advertising of old, regular and upmarket brands, and the number of newspaper news items on smoking issues were inversely associated with cigarette sales. Tending to increase total sales (all brands) were: more non-shopping days in the current week, and in the week following; volume of grocery items purchased, to indicate income and store traffic; and real advertising expenditure in newspapers for new downmarket cigarette brands, particularly one heavily-advertised brand (Peter Jackson) which was in late 1989 smoked by 4% of teenage smokers. All factors when interacting, explained 93% of changes in weekly cigarette sales. Most of the change occurred in the same week, and was 90% in place after a further 3 weeks. Newspapers, by doubling news coverage of smoking issues or by banning cigarette advertisements, can lower cigarette consumption as much as can a 10% price increase.

Advertising↗
PubMed1994

Infant formula distribution and advertising in pregnancy: a hospital survey.

A survey was conducted at a 526-bed community hospital in Rochester, New York, to determine the prevalence of formula advertising and distribution during pregnancy to 136 consecutive intrapartum patients. Women answered a questionnaire about their choice of infant feeding methods and prenatal exposure to formula advertising. Of those who received printed information on infant feeding, 78 percent reported that it was published by a formula company, and 65 percent recalled receiving offers for free formula during their pregnancy. The likelihood of having received such offers was the same in women who planned to breastfeed as in those who planned to formula feed. Thirty-eight percent of women obtained formula through a free offer before their infant's birth. Women who were privately cared for were more likely to have received offers for free formula (p < 0.001) than were women cared for in hospital-affiliated clinics. Ninety percent of women who received free formula prenatally reported their prenatal caregiver as a source of samples. Of samples that women obtained prenatally, 93 percent were from companies that advertise only indirectly through hospitals and physicians, whereas 7 percent were from companies that advertise directly to patients. The prevalence of formula company advertising during the prenatal care of women who deliver in this hospital is high. The continued participation of prenatal caregivers in promotion efforts of formula companies provides a negative or mixed message about the importance of breastfeeding and may be a barrier to its success.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Messages in alcohol advertising targeted to youth.

OBJECTIVE: To assess young people's perceived messages in three ads for a vodka-based, pre-mixed alcohol beverage, and to assess the extent to which the ads appeared to be consistent with the industry's voluntary code. METHOD: Members of two convenience samples of young people (15-16 and 19-21 years) were each exposed to one of three advertisements. Respondents completed a post exposure questionnaire based on standard advertising copy testing procedures. RESULTS: The most frequently nominated open-ended responses to 'the main message(s) of the ad' related to the product delivering mood effects: both removal of negative emotions (e.g. 'stress reduction'), as well as inducing positive states such as feeling 'carefree' and gaining 'increased enjoyment'. Consumption of the product was perceived to offer 'self-confidence', 'sexual/relationship success' and 'social success'. Fewer respondents nominated tangible product characteristics, the main one being 'easy to drink'. One in four of the 15-16 year olds saw the ads as aimed at 'people my age', while almost half of the 19-21 year olds saw the ads as aimed at 'people younger or much younger than me'. DISCUSSION: These results appear to contravene the Alcoholic Beverages Advertising Code (ABAC) by suggesting that the consumption of alcohol beverages: (i) contributes to social and sexual success; and (ii) contributes to a significant change in mood (stress reduction/relaxation). IMPLICATIONS: Incidental observation of alcohol ads suggests that contravention of the code is more widespread than the number of alcohol advertising complaints would indicate. All 11 such complaints lodged with the Advertising Standards Board between May 1998 and April 1999 were dismissed. Evidence such as that gathered in this study might improve the chances of complaints being upheld.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Effect of advertising on awareness of symptoms of diabetes among the general public: the British Diabetic Association Study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of posters advertising symptoms of diabetes on public knowledge of these symptoms. DESIGN: Structured street interviews of members of the general public before, at the end of, and 10 weeks after a campaign advertising the main symptoms of diabetes. SETTING: Basingstoke and Wolverhampton. SUBJECTS: Three samples of 1000 members of the general public were interviewed. Samples were selected randomly but stratified to match the local population's age (20-75), sex, social class, and racial characteristics. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Knowledge of symptoms of diabetes; perceived seriousness of diabetes; and induction of anxiety about symptoms in the target population. RESULTS: Advertising significantly raised knowledge (without prompting) of symptoms: thirst, 245 before v 411 at end of campaign (P < 0.0001) v 341 after (P = 0.0012 v before); polyuria, 72 v 101 (P = 0.0211) v 92 (P = 0.5169); lethargy, 180 v 373 (P < 0.0001) v 298 (P < 0.0001); knowledge of weight loss and visual disturbance was unaffected. The number of subjects lacking knowledge of any symptoms was reduced from 550 to 388 (P < 0.0001). The perceived seriousness of diabetes was unaffected (mean 7.6 in each phase on a scale of 1 (not) to 10 (very). Before advertising, 449 (45%) claimed to have one or more symptoms of diabetes, but this number fell at the end of the campaign (403; P = 0.0419) and 10 weeks afterwards (278; P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: An advertising campaign raised public knowledge of diabetes symptoms without inducing fear of diabetes or anxiety about symptoms. Its potential for achieving earlier detection of non-insulin dependent diabetes should be evaluated.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Do drug advertisements in Russian medical journals provide essential information for safe prescribing?

OBJECTIVE: To examine pharmaceutical advertisements in medical journals for their adequacy of information. METHODS: We selected a convenience sample of 5 major Russian medical journals covering different fields of medicine and different types of publications. We evaluated all the ads in all the issues of the selected journals published during 1998. We counted the number of appearances of trade, chemical, and generic names; indication and contraindication; pharmacologic group; safety warnings; and references. Counts in all categories were aggregated for each advertiser. RESULTS: There were 397 placements of 207 distinct advertisements. Only 154 placements (40%) mentioned the generic name, 177 (45%) mentioned any indication, 42 (11%) mentioned safety warnings and contraindications, 21 (5%) warned about drug interactions, and 8 (2%) provided references. The 6 companies responsible for the most ads on average provided less information than the other companies. CONCLUSIONS: Almost none of the drug ads published in Russian medical journals provide the basic information required for appropriate prescribing. This is despite the fact that in Russia, ads that omit essential information and that could lead consumers to misunderstandings about an advertised product are illegal. The arrival of drug advertising in Russia has brought little information and has been potentially damaging.

Advertising↗
PubMed2002

Tobacco point of sale advertising increases positive brand user imagery.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the potential impact of point of sale advertising on adolescents so as to inform changes to the Tobacco Control Act. DESIGN: Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. In the control condition, students were exposed to a photograph of a packet of cigarettes; in the intervention condition, students were exposed to an ad for cigarettes, typical of point of sale advertising posters. All students then rated the brand user on a set of 12 bipolar adjectives. Two brands were used in the study: Benson & Hedges, and Marlboro. SUBJECTS: One hundred year (grade) 6 and 7 students (age range 10-12 years), from four Western Australian metropolitan primary schools, participated in the study. RESULTS: In a majority of the brand user descriptions, the cigarette advertisements increased brand user imagery in a positive way, especially for Benson & Hedges. For example, participants viewing the Benson & Hedges advertisement, as distinct from those viewing the Benson & Hedges pack only, were more likely to describe the Benson & Hedges user as relaxed, interesting, cool, rich, adventurous, and classy. Relative to the Marlboro pack only, the Marlboro ad increased positive perceptions of the Marlboro user on adventurous, interesting, and relaxed. CONCLUSIONS: The results presented here support restrictions being placed on advertising at point of sale, since such ads have the potential to increase positive brand user imagery directly in the situation where a product purchase can take place, and hence the potential to increase the likelihood of impulse purchasing.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The growing commercial value of the male body: a longitudinal survey of advertising in women's magazines.

BACKGROUND: With the advances of feminism, men have gradually relinquished their once-exclusive 'masculine' roles as fighters and breadwinners. In response to this change, the male body may have gained in relative importance as one of the few surviving marks of masculinity. We hypothesized that these trends might be quantified by using a commercial measure such as advertising. METHODS: We examined the proportion of exposed male and female bodies portrayed in advertisements between 1958 and 1998 in two leading American women's magazines. RESULTS: In both magazines, the proportion of undressed women in the advertisements has changed little over the last 40 years, whereas the proportion of undressed men has increased dramatically, especially since the early 1980s. CONCLUSIONS: Trends in commercial advertising offer tentative support for the hypothesis that the male body is increasing in importance as a mark of masculinity--at least as judged from the actions of advertisers seeking to influence women's attitudes.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

How did the Master Settlement Agreement change tobacco industry expenditures for cigarette advertising and promotions?

The 1998 multistate Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) with the tobacco industry restricted cigarette advertising and promotions. The MSA monetary settlement was also associated with an average cigarette price increase of U.S.$1.19/pack between 1998 and 2001 to fund, in part, industry payments to the states. We examined Federal Trade Commission reports on how the tobacco industry spends its cigarette advertising and promotional dollars to see if changes expected as a result of the MSA occurred. Expected changes included reduced total expenditures and reductions for outdoor advertising, specialty promotional items identified with a brand (e.g., caps, t-shirts, lighters), and public entertainment. However, tobacco industry spending for advertising and promotions increased 96% between 1995 and 2001, with large increases in 1998 and 1999, as the MSA took effect. Between 1997 and 2001, outdoor advertising declined 98%, expenditures for specialty promotional items decreased 41%, although public entertainment increased 45%. However, in 2001, these categories represented only a small fraction of the total budget. Expenditures for retail-value-added increased 344% between 1997 and 2001 (to 42.5% of total), perhaps to mitigate increased cigarette prices. In 2001, the incentives-to-merchants and retail-value-added categories comprised more than 80% of total expenditures. To adequately monitor tobacco industry expenditures as they adapt to the MSA and other tobacco control efforts, more refined reporting categories are essential.

Advertising↗
PubMed2005

Why the spontaneous images created by the hands during talk can help make TV advertisements more effective.

The design of effective communications depends upon an adequate model of the communication process. The traditional model is that speech conveys semantic information and bodily movement conveys information about emotion and interpersonal attitudes. But McNeill (2000) argues that this model is fundamentally wrong and that some bodily movements, namely spontaneous hand movements generated during talk (iconic gestures), are integral to semantic communication. But can we increase the effectiveness of communication using this new theory? Focusing on advertising we found that advertisements in which the message was split between speech and iconic gesture (possible on TV) were significantly more effective than advertisements in which meaning resided purely in speech or language (radio/newspaper). We also found that the significant differences in communicative effectiveness were maintained across five consecutive trials. We compared the communicative power of professionally made TV advertisements in which a spoken message was accompanied either by iconic gestures or by pictorial images, and found the iconic gestures to be more effective. We hypothesized that iconic gestures are so effective because they illustrate and isolate just the core semantic properties of a product. This research suggests that TV advertisements can be made more effective by incorporating iconic gestures with exactly the right temporal and semantic properties.

Advertising↗
PubMed2002

From Lydia Pinkham to Bob Dole: what the changing face of direct-to-consumer drug advertising reveals about the professionalism of medicine.

From its founding in 1847, the AMA divided drugs into "ethical" and "unethical" preparations. Those that were ethical had a known composition and were advertised only to the profession. Other, patent medicines (technically proprietary drugs, whose trademarks were protected by copyright), were sold directly to the public. In spite of the AMA's efforts to ban the advertising and sale of those nostrums, proprietary drugs flourished during the nineteenth century. Starting in 1900, however, three major societal trends combined to bolster the AMA's campaign, and by 1920 almost all advertising was directed to physicians, who would then prescribe medications to their patients. This ban on advertising pharmaceuticals directly to the public remained virtually unchanged until approximately 1980. Since then, it has slowly eroded and, as recently as 1997, the FDA created guidelines for pharmaceutical companies to advertise on television. What does this change say about the profession of medicine, the role of the physician in society, and the doctor-patient relationship? Using a comparative historical approach, this paper examines these issues.

Advertising↗
PubMed1995

Alcohol warnings in TV beer advertisements.

OBJECTIVE: Mandated warnings are among the few steps Congress has taken to influence the use of legal substances such as alcohol. The usefulness of such warnings in discouraging abuse of alcohol is, however, controversial. This study examines the impact of televised warnings on probable antecedents of belief change not examined in previous research: confidence in beliefs about beer risks or benefits, and cognitive responses to the advertisements. METHOD: The present study (N = 75 male and female college students) tests four of the warnings recommended in Senate Bill 674 (1993--the "Thurmond bill") edited into randomly sampled television beer advertisements, using a between-subjects treatment-and-control experimental design. The four advertisements or advertisement/warning pairs were counterbalanced and analyzed as a repeated measures factor. RESULTS: The study indicated, as hypothesized, that subjects exposed to warnings tended to have less confidence in their generally skeptical assessments of beer risks--a likely precursor to belief change in resistant populations. Repeated exposure to the advertisements alone also appeared to lead to increased confidence in generally positive assessments of beer benefits, whereas repeated exposure to warnings led to decreased confidence in such assessments. Repeated exposure to warnings also may have primed negative reactions to subsequent beer advertisements. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest mechanisms by which alcohol warnings may over time influence beliefs. Measures used here may serve as useful criterion variables in future studies on warnings. Further attention to optimizing warning content and presentation is recommended.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

How do psychological factors influence adolescent smoking progression? The evidence for indirect effects through tobacco advertising receptivity.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether novelty seeking and depressive symptoms had mediated or indirect effects on adolescent smoking progression through tobacco advertising receptivity. METHODS: More than 1000 adolescents were monitored from 9th grade to 12th grade and completed annual surveys that measured demographic characteristics, smoking behavior, tobacco advertising receptivity, novelty-seeking personality, depressive symptoms, family and peer smoking, alcohol use, and marijuana use. RESULTS: Latent growth modeling indicated that novelty seeking had a significant indirect effect on smoking progression through baseline tobacco advertising receptivity. For each 1-SD increase in novelty seeking, the odds of being more receptive to tobacco advertising increased by 12% (ie, being in a specific category or higher), which in turn resulted in an 11% increase in the odds of smoking progression from 9th grade to 12th grade. The indirect effect from depressive symptoms to smoking progression did not reach significance. CONCLUSIONS: These findings may inform future research on other factors that influence tobacco advertising receptivity, as well as programs aimed at preventing adolescent smoking initiation and progression.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Assessing the impact of antidrug advertising on adolescent drug consumption: results from a behavioral economic model.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined whether adolescents' recall of antidrug advertising is associated with a decreased probability of using illicit drugs and, given drug use, a reduced volume of use. METHODS: A behavioral economic model of influences on drug consumption was developed with survey data from a nationally representative sample of adolescents to determine the incremental impact of antidrug advertising. RESULTS: The findings provided evidence that recall of antidrug advertising was associated with a lower probability of marijuana and cocaine/crack use. Recall of such advertising was not associated with the decision of how much marijuana or cocaine/crack to use. Results suggest that individuals predisposed to try marijuana are also predisposed to try cocaine/crack. CONCLUSIONS: The present results provide support for the effectiveness of antidrug advertising programs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

The construction of patienthood in medical advertising.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the dominant symbolic elements, themes, and discourses used in drug advertisements published in a weekly magazine directed toward physicians. The discussion is concerned with both the visual signs and textual format of the advertisements, analyzing their attempts to create images around the drugs that appeal to the medical readership of the magazine. With the premise that the producers of the advertisements drew upon shared knowledge and belief systems of their medical audience to create a meaningful image for the drugs, the focus of the article is upon the portrayal of patients in the advertisements, with particular interest in gendered representations. The author argues that the way in which patients are portrayed visually and verbally in such advertisements is revealing of the ideological dimension of the doctor-patient relationship within the biomedical system of healing, including notions of the mechanical man and the vulnerable woman as archetypal patients.

Advertising↗