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PubMed2005

An assessment of obese and non obese girls' metabolic rate during television viewing, reading, and resting.

While childhood obesity has been linked to television (TV) viewing, specific mechanisms are not well understood. Obesity related to TV viewing might plausibly be related to decreased physical activity, increased food intake, reductions in metabolic rate, or combinations of these. The current investigation sought to ascertain the metabolic effects of quiet rest, listening to a story, watching a passive TV program, and watching an active TV show. Counter-balanced conditions were presented to 90 pre-pubertal girls ranging in body mass index from underweight to obese. In addition, effects between resting energy expenditure (REE) and race, body mass index, skinfold measures, physical activity, pubertal stage and average hours spent viewing TV were explored. Results indicated no significant differences in metabolic rate between weight groups nor between activity conditions (story listening and TV viewing) and rest conditions. A significant dose-response relationship was found in which REE decreased as average weekly hours of TV viewing increased, after adjusting for body mass index and puberty stage. Additionally, later stages of pubertal development compared to earlier stages were related to higher levels of REE. Results of this study suggest that metabolic rate alone cannot account for the consistently observed relationship between television viewing and obesity. Future studies should focus on energy intake, physical inactivity, or combinations of these with metabolic rate in seeking specific mechanisms responsible for television viewing related to obesity.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed2007

Television watching and frequency of family meals are predictive of overweight onset and persistence in a national sample of school-aged children.

OBJECTIVE: To identify eating and activity factors associated with school-aged children's onset of overweight and persistent overweight. DESIGN: Data were gathered at four time points between kindergarten entry and spring of third grade. Children were directly weighed and measured and categorized as not overweight (<95th percentile of body mass index) or overweight (> or =95th percentile body mass index); parents were interviewed by telephone or in person. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Subjects were participants in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort, a nationally representative sample of children who entered kindergarten during 1998-1999. Children who weighed <2,000 g at birth, received therapeutic services before kindergarten, skipped or repeated a grade, or without complete height and weight data were excluded, resulting in 8,459 participants. Children with intermittent overweight were not examined (n=459); analyses addressed 8,000 children. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Three mutually exclusive groups of children were identified: never overweight, overweight onset, and persistent overweight. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Multilevel, multivariate logistic regression analyses estimated the effects of eating and activity factors on the odds of overweight onset and persistent overweight above child sex, race, and family socioeconomic status. RESULTS: Children who watched more television (odds ratio [OR] 1.02) and ate fewer family meals (OR 1.08) were more likely to be overweight for the first time at spring semester of third grade. Children who watched more television (OR 1.03), ate fewer family meals (OR 1.08), and lived in neighborhoods perceived by parents as less safe for outdoor play (OR 1.32) were more likely to be persistently overweight. Child aerobic exercise and opportunities for activity were not associated with a greater likelihood of weight problems. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports theories regarding the contributions of television watching, family meals, and neighborhood safety to childhood weight status. When working with families to prevent and treat childhood weight problems, food and nutrition professionals should attend to children's time spent with screen media, the frequency of family mealtimes, and parents' perceptions of neighborhood safety for children's outdoor play.

Body Mass Index↗
PubMed2006

Infant's brain responses to live and televised action.

Whether human infants perceive televised stimuli in the same way to live stimuli largely remains unknown. Action observation, which has been extensively confirmed to elicit activation of internal motor representation, provides a promising framework for investigating this issue. This 'mirror-matching' property has been found in the monkey premotor cortex as well as the premotor and primary motor cortices in human adults. Although larger activation in observing a live action compared to a televised action in adult subjects has been reported, it is unknown whether the same neural response is obtained from human infants. To address this issue, we first measured the activity of motor areas in adult subjects while viewing either a live or televised action of other people by using near-infrared spectroscopy. The motor areas that were activated when the subject themselves performed an action were also activated during action observation in the live setting, while this was not evident in the TV setting. We then conducted qualitatively the same experiment with 6- to 7-month-old infants. The infant's motor areas were significantly activated when observing a live person performing an action. Although we also found activation in the same area during action observation in the TV setting, the difference in activity between action observation and object-motion observation was significant only in the live setting. Our results are the first to demonstrate activation in motor areas during action observation in human infants. We suggest that human brain responds differently to the real world and the virtual world.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

The 30-second effect: an experiment revealing the impact of television commercials on food preferences of preschoolers.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether televised food commercials influence preschool children's food preferences. DESIGN: In this randomized, controlled trial, preschool children viewed a videotape of a popular children's cartoon either with or without embedded commercials. Children were then asked to identify their preferences from pairs of similar products, one of which was advertised in the videotape with embedded commercials. Preschoolers' parents were interviewed to determine children's demographic characteristics and media use patterns. SUBJECTS: Forty-six 2- to 6-year-olds from a Head Start program in northern California. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: For demographic and media use characteristics, univariate data were examined and Student t and chi 2 tests were used to test for differences between the control and treatment groups. We calculated the Cochran Q statistic to assess whether the proportion of those choosing advertised food items was significantly higher in the treatment group than in the control group. RESULTS: Children exposed to the videotape with embedded commercials were significantly more likely to choose the advertised items than children who saw the same videotape without commercials (Qdiff = 8.13, df = 1, P < .01). CONCLUSIONS/APPLICATIONS: Even brief exposures to televised food commercials can influence preschool children's food preferences. Nutritionists and health educators should advise parents to limit their preschooler's exposure to television advertisements. Furthermore, advocates should raise the public policy issue of advertising and young children, especially given the recent epidemic of childhood obesity and the ever-changing media environment.

Advertising↗
PubMed1979

Television questionnaire techniques in assessing forgetting in long-term memory.

Two experiments were designed to test methodological assumptions basic to the television questionnaire technique in order to analyze its appropriateness in assessing forgetting in long-term memory. After controlling for confounding variables in the technique as it is presently used, a non-linear function of time period of television program on recognition response to that program's title was found. Reported television viewing habits had a significant effect on recognition score. The relevance of these findings in regard to the quantitative study of retrograde amnesia is discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Multipurpose closed-circuit television teaching cart.

We developed a mobile closed-circuit television cart for resident and staff presentations at rounds, and fluorescein angiography and pathology conferences. The system, operated without special training, permits presentation of x-rays, CT scans, visual fields, echographic and electrophysiologic tracings, fluorescein angiograms, color photographs, 35 mm slides, and printed text on standard closed-circuit television monitors. For pathology conferences, gross dissections, slides of whole eyes and standard high power microscopic fields may be shown. The cart can be assembled using readily available components for the same cost as a stand-alone glass slide projector. Mounted on wheels, the entire unit may be moved to any location equipped with closed circuit television monitors. Because the cart can be used to teach nearly every medical discipline, the cost of construction can be shared by a number of departments.

Audiovisual Aids↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Television and adolescents].

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the television customs of adolescents between 10 and 14 years old in our care environment, in order to work out special educational programmes. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. Systematic random sampling. SETTING: Primary care, urban setting. PARTICIPANTS: Sample of 280 healthy adolescents between 10 and 14 years old (148 men and 132 women). MAIN MEASUREMENTS: Questionnaire with 7 questions on television habits filled in by one of every three young people in the health examination for their age-group during the 2000-2001 school year. RESULTS: 70.9% watched television (TV) since before the age of 3; 71.4% of homes had two or more TV; 20.7% had TV in their bed-rooms. 43.6% were accustomed to watching TV without adult company. 98.1% watched TV every day of the week. Time devoted to watching TV was 119 minutes every working day (Monday to Friday) and 186 minutes at the week-ends (Saturday and Sunday). In addition, 76.4% also watched TV at one of the day's meals, especially the evening meal. CONCLUSIONS: TV is treated in our homes with enormous permissiveness. Children are given easy access from a very early age: TV is placed in bed-rooms and the contents watched are hardly controlled at all. In consequence, adolescents' TV consumption is excessive and indiscriminate.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

[Children, television and violence].

The relationships between children and television are a source of heated debate. Several studies, mainly conducted in North America, have found a correlation between television violence viewing and aggressive behavior, preadolescents appearing as the most vulnerable. However, in France opinions are more nuanced and one generally considers that television-induced violence in children mainly depends upon individual and educative socio-familial factors.

Child↗
PubMed1999

The relation of story structure properties to recall of television stories in young children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and nonreferred peers.

In this study, the authors examined memory for televised stories to gain insight into similarities and differences in story comprehension between young children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and their typical peers. In particular, the authors investigated the extent to which 4- to 6-year-old children's free recall of story events is predicted by several structural properties of story events (number of causal connections, whether an event is on or off the story's causal chain, story-grammar category, and position in the story's hierarchical structure), whether differences exist between children with ADHD and nonreferred comparison children in their sensitivity to structural features of stories, and whether age differences in sensitivity to structural features are similar for both groups. For both groups, recall of story events was predicted by all four structural properties, but the effects of the two causal properties was stronger for comparison children than for children with ADHD. Further examination revealed that this difference was observed only when a competing activity was available during television viewing. These findings indicate that both groups of preschool children are able to benefit from causal structure when recalling television stories, but that children with ADHD lose this benefit when attention is divided. Consistent with previous findings for nonreferred children (P. W. van den Broek, E. P. Lorch, & R. Thurlow, 1996), in both diagnostic groups the effects of causal properties increased across age, and older children were more likely to include causally important protagonists' goals in their recalls than younger children.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
PubMed1987

The impact of televised movies about suicide. A replicative study.

Gould and Shaffer studied suicides by teenagers in the New York City area before and after three fictional films about suicide were televised, and presented evidence suggesting that the films were followed by a significant increase in teenage suicides. Using their methods, we studied teenage suicides in California and Pennsylvania before and after the television broadcast of the same three films. In these states, there was no evidence of an increase in teenage suicides after the films were shown. This remained true when data for New York from the study of Gould and Shaffer were combined with our data from California and Pennsylvania. We conclude that it is premature to be concerned about possibly fatal effects of fictional televised films about suicide.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Effects of presentation format on adult's retention of television programs.

The possible effects of presentation format on the retention of television program content was examined. Younger and older adults viewed two different types of programs in one of four formats reflecting those used in commercial and public television, and in previous research. Results showed no effects due to the manipulation for either age group; free recall, probed recall, and recognition performances were equivalent for each presentation format. These findings indicate that researchers may have a choice of equivalent formats in television research.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

An evaluation of the effectiveness of televised road safety messages in Ghana.

The goal was to evaluate the effectiveness of recent televised advertisements conducted by the National Road Safety Commission in Ghana. These concerned speeding and alcohol-impaired driving and were targeted towards commercial drivers. Focus group discussions were conducted with 50 commercial drivers in four cities. Discussions addressed coverage, clarity and appropriateness of messages, including suggestions for improvements. Most discussants indicated that the messages were clear and appropriate. Television reached all participants in this urban group. However, they felt that other modes of communication, such as flyers and radio, should also be used to reach drivers who did not own televisions. A particular problem was language. The advertisements had been in English and Akan (the most common vernacular language). Participants wanted the messages diversified into more of the major Ghanaian languages. Some participants were unclear on the behaviour that the advertisements were telling viewers to take. Participants advocated greater involvement by police in road safety and called for laws banning the sale of alcohol at bus stations. The advertisements reached and were understood by most of the target audience. Opportunities for strengthening the messages included using other media; increasing the number of languages; and stressing the change in behaviour being recommended. Overall road safety activities would be strengthened by increasing accompanying law enforcement activities related to speed and alcohol-impaired driving. To the authors' knowledge this is the first formal evaluation of a road safety social marketing programme in a low-income sub-Saharan African country. This evaluation will hopefully assist Ghana and other similar countries in strengthening road safety work.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2005

Television and music video exposure and adolescent alcohol use while going out.

AIMS: To examine whether television viewing and music video exposure predict alcohol consumption while going out. METHODS: Data were collected in two waves (February 2003 and February 2004). Respondents were a random sample of 1648 first and fourth year secondary school children of Flanders, Belgium. Self-reported general TV viewing and music video exposure at time 1 and the quantity of alcohol consumed while going out at time 2 were measured. Controls were gender, age group, smoking behaviour, and alcohol use (at time 1) and pubertal status (at time 2). RESULTS: Overall television viewing per day and music television viewing at time 1 significantly predicted the amount of alcoholic beverages adolescents consumed while going out at time 2. These results remained significant after controlling for alcohol use at time 1, gender, smoking, and pubertal status. CONCLUSIONS: TV viewing habits are a significant predictor of alcohol consumption while going out. TV viewing might cause an increase in alcohol consumption or might be an early symptom of developing alcohol habits.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Age differences in processing information from television news: the effects of bisensory augmentation.

Younger and older adults listened to segments of television news under one of three conditions: (a) Listen, in which they heard the auditory portion of the segment without its visual track; (b) Listen + Read, in which they listened to the auditory track only while reading along with a written transcript; and (c) Listen + Television, in which they heard the original televised segment complete with audio and visual track. Younger adults showed better free recall for the spoken information when it was augmented by the written transcript or video track; older adults did not show this benefit of bisensory augmentation. Subjects were also tested on a Daneman and Carpenter (1980) style measure of working memory processing. This measure accounted for virtually all age variance in memory performance in the unaugmented Listen condition. In the Listen + TV condition, however, there was a substantial proportion of age variance in performance which could not be accounted for in terms of working memory processing. Results are discussed in terms of the varying involvement of working memory processing in age differences as a function of input modality.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

How much food advertising is there on Australian television?

The purpose of this study was to conduct a comprehensive content analysis of television food advertising and provide data on current levels of food advertising in Australia. All three commercial stations available on free-to-air Australian television were concurrently videotaped between 7 a.m. and 9 p.m. on two weekdays and both weekend days in four locations across Australia to provide a total of 645 h for analysis. Each advertisement was categorized as 'non-food ad', 'healthy/core food ad' or 'unhealthy/non-core food ad' according to set criteria. Thirty-one percent of the advertisements analyzed were for food. Eighty-one percent of the food advertisements identified were for unhealthy/non-core foods. When comparing the results of this study with previous research, it was found that the number of unhealthy advertisements screened per hour had not changed over the past few years. On weekdays, the number of advertisements increased throughout the day to peak at more than five advertisements per hour in the 6 p.m. to 9 p.m. time slot. The early morning time slot on Saturday was the most concentrated period for advertising unhealthy/non-core food with more than six advertisements screened per hour. The regional areas screened a significantly lower level of unhealthy/non-core food advertisements (19.5%) compared with the metropolitan areas (29.5%). Fast food and takeaway was the most advertised food category, followed by chocolate and confectionery. A total 194 breaches of the Children's Television Standards were identified according to our interpretation of the standard. It is well recognized that childhood obesity is a worldwide problem. The heavy marketing of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods influences food choices and contributes to the incidence of overweight and obesity in children. Despite the recognition of this growing problem, little has been done to ensure children are protected against the use of large volumes of unhealthy/non-core food advertising.

Advertising↗
PubMed1986

Effects of television on children and adolescents.

The average child born today will, by age 15, have spent more time watching television than going to school. Research has shown that heavy doses of TV violence viewing are associated with the development of aggressive attitudes and behavior. TV viewing also appears to cultivate stereotypic views of gender roles and race. Finally, television commercials often capitalize on children's naivete, and also can foster and reinforce overly materialistic attitudes. All of these adverse effects can be minimized if parents restrict the amount of overall viewing, encourage some programs and discourage others, and talk to children frequently about the meaning of what they see on television.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1980

Evaluation of television consultations between a large neonatal care hospital and a community hospital.

Two-way television consultations between community hospital nurses and neonatologists at a nearby teaching hospital were conducted over a two- and one-half year period of time and were evaluated with respect to a baseline time period in which the television was not available. Screening for illness and prematurity in neonates occurred in a high risk population residing in a black, economically deprived, innercity area. Outcomes including transfer of sick babies from the community hospital to the large teaching hospital are analyzed in relation to prenatal maternal risk characteristics. Apgar scores, birth weight and gestational age. Evidence available suggests that television consultations facilitated formation of appropriate criteria for interhospital transfer and that routine clinical screening tests were performed more consistently following initiation of interhospital consultations.

Age Factors↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The infant as onlooker: learning from emotional reactions observed in a television scenario.

Two studies investigated whether 10- and 12-month-olds can use televised emotional reactions to guide their behavior. Infants watched an actress orient toward 1 of 2 novel objects and react with neutral affect during baseline and with positive or negative affect during test. Infants then had 30 s to interact with the objects. In Study 1, 12-month-olds (N = 32) avoided the target object and showed increases in negative affect after observing the negative-emotion scenario. Twelve-month-olds' responses to positive vs. neutral signals did not differ significantly. In Study 2, 10-month-olds (N = 32) attended to the televised presentations but showed no consistent changes in their object interactions or affect. Thus, 12-month-olds used social information presented on television and associated emotional signals with the intended target.

Affect↗