Effects of Quercus ilex L. and Punica granatum L. polyphenols against ethanol-induced gastric damage in rats.
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Algeria↗
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Water stress responses of seedlings of four Mediterranean oak species.
Effects of water stress on phenology, growth, stomatal activity and water status were assessed from April to November 1996 in 2-year-old seedlings of Quercus frainetto Ten. (Quercus conferta Kit.), Quercus pubescens Willd., Quercus macrolepis Kotschy (Quercus aegilops auct.) and Quercus ilex L. growing in containers in northern Greece. All four species developed more than 50% of their total leaf area before the beginning of June--an adaptation to arid climates. Well-irrigated plants tended to develop greater individual leaf area, number of leaves per plant, total plant leaf area, height and root:shoot ratios than water-stressed plants, but the difference between treatments was not significant for any parameter in any species. Quercus macrolepis appeared to be the most drought-tolerant of the four species. It maintained the highest number of leaves of the smallest size and increased the proportion of fine roots during drought. In all species, drought caused significant decreases in stomatal conductance and predawn and midday water potentials from mid-July until the end of August, when the lowest soil water content and highest mean daily air temperatures and midday leaf temperatures occurred; however, the responses were species-specific. Among the four species, Quercus macrolepis sustained the highest stomatal conductance despite very low water potentials, thus overcoming drought by means of desiccation tolerance. Quercus ilex decreased stomatal conductance even before severe water stress occurred, thereby avoiding desication during drought. Quercus pubescens had the highest water potential despite a high stomatal conductance, indicating that its leaf water status was independent of stomatal activity. Quercus frainetto was the least drought-resistant of the four species. During drought it developed very low water potentials despite markedly reduced stomatal aperture.
Greece↗
Volatile compounds in Spanish, French, and American oak woods after natural seasoning and toasting.
The volatile composition (volatile phenols, phenolic aldehydes, furanic compounds, lactones, phenyl ketones, and other related compounds) of Spanish oak heartwood of Quercus robur, Quercus petraea,Quercus pyrenaica, and Quercus faginea was studied by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, in relation to the processing in barrels cooperage and in relation to the French oak of Quercus robur (Limousin) and Quercus petraea (Allier) and American oak of Quercus alba (Missouri), which are habitually used in cooperage. The volatile composition of seasoned oak woods varied according to individual trees, species, and origins, and the differences were more significant in Spanish species with respect to American species than with respect to French species. The toasting process influenced the volatile composition of wood. It led to high increases in the concentration of volatile phenols, furanic aldehydes, phenyl ketones, and other related structures, but the effect on w-lactones levels depended on species and origin. The volatile composition in Spanish oak species evolved during toasting like in French and American oak, but quantitative differences were found, especially important in American species with respect to European species.
Aldehydes↗
[Water storage characteristics of ground covers under three forests in Three Gorges area].
Through water holding experiments and the survey of ground covers under three forests (mixed forest of Quercus variabilis and Pinus massoniana, pure Quercus variabilis forest and pure Pinus massoniana forest) in Three Gorges Area, the hydrological characteristic parameters, e.g., maximum water holding capacity and water absorption speed, were measured. The results showed that the maximum water holding capacity of moss under pure Quercus variabilis forest is the highest (303.1% of its dry weight), that under mixed forest of Quercus variabilis and Pinus massoniana was 283.8%, and that under pure Pinus massoniana forest was 242.3%. The maximum water holding capacity of litter under mixed forest stand of Quercus variabils and Pinus massoniana was 282.2% of its dry weight, that under pure Quercus variabilis forest is 262.5%, that under pure Pinus massoniana forest was 239.3%. The equation between water absorption speed of ground cover and its immersed period could be S = kt(n). The results also showed that when the forests were all in mid-age, the water holding ability of the mosses was higher than that of the litters under the same forest. The ground cover's variation with its immersed period had no relation to forest types.
Absorption↗
Importance of fragmentation-tolerant species as seed dispersers in disturbed landscapes.
Forest fragmentation can negatively affect plants if animal seed-dispersers become locally extinct in fragments. We conducted a 2-year experiment to evaluate the importance of tree squirrels (Sciurus) as seed dispersers for Quercus, Carya, and Juglans, and to assess dispersal consequences in patches where fragmentation-sensitive eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) are absent. We accounted for fates of approximately 15,700 seeds from five tree species in four exclosure treatments at 18 fragments during a high (2003-2004) and low seed (2004-2005) year. Two treatments excluded Sciurus to mimic disperser loss. We sampled nut-tree seedling density at 259 sites across eight watersheds, half of which were too fragmented to support S. carolinensis, but supported fragmentation-tolerant fox squirrels (Sciurus niger). Autumn-to-spring seed survival was low ( approximately 1%) for all species during low seed production. During high seed production, survival was higher for Juglans nigra (20%) and Carya ovata (16%) than for three Quercus species ( approximately 4% for Quercus palustris and Quercus rubra in two exclosure types; approximately 1% for Quercus alba in all treatments). Survival of J. nigra, C. ovata, and Q. rubra was >or=2.1-7.7 times higher for seeds in exclosures that Sciurus could access. Seed displacement distance was higher in the low seed than the seed-rich year, but the proportion of seeds surviving to greater distances was higher in seed-rich years for all seed types except Q. rubra. This affirms the importance of masting to seed survival and dispersal, but also suggests an advantage to trees of producing seed in non-mast years. Seedling densities were comparable in watersheds with and without S. carolinensis. These results demonstrate the importance of tree squirrels as dispersers of nut-bearing trees, but suggest that fragmentation may not disrupt dispersal of certain species if losing S. carolinensis from disturbed landscapes is compensated for by fragmentation-tolerant fox squirrels (S. niger).
Animals↗
Volatile compounds in a spanish red wine aged in barrels made of Spanish, French, and American oak wood.
A red Rioja wine was aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood (Quercus robur, Quercus petraea,Quercus pyrenaica, and Quercus faginea) during 21 months. The concentrations of some volatile compounds [syringaldehyde, vanillin, eugenol, maltol, guaiacol, 4-ethylphenol, cis and trans isomers of beta-methyl-gamma-octalactone, 2-furfuraldehyde, 5-methyl-2-furfuraldehyde, 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furfuraldehyde, and furfuryl alcohol] were studied in these wines and compared with those of the same wine aged in barrels made from French oak of Q. robur (Limousin, France) and Q. petraea (Allier, France) and American oak of Quercus alba (Missouri). Similar concentrations of these compounds were found in wines aged in Spanish and French oak wood barrels, and significantly different concentrations were found with respect to wines aged in barrels made of American oak wood, indicating a different behavior. Thus, wines with different characteristics were obtained, depending on the kind of wood. Also, the kind of wood had an important influence on sensory characteristics of wine during the aging process. Spanish oak wood from Q. robur, Q. petraea, and Q. pyrenaica can be considered to be suitable for barrel production for quality wines, because a wine aged in barrels made of these Spanish oak woods showed similar and intermediate characteristics to those of the same wine aged in French and American oak woods usually used in cooperage.
Food Handling↗
[Quantitative analysis on sharp-tooth oak stands in Qinling Mountains].
The arbor stratum of Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata stands included two substratums. Phanerophyta synusium was in first position, and hemicryptophyta was inferior to it. The DBH structures of Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata and Pinus armandii were sinister normal school, which could finish self-regeneration under the natural conditions. The small DBH class individuals of Pinus tabulaeformis were dominant, their DBH classes being distributed irregularly and absent very much. The large DBH classes of Toxicodendron vernicifluum took biggish proportion, belonging to declining population. Young trees were the principal individuals of Castanea mollissima, and in transitional age stage from the young to the middle. Populus davidiana was in the transitional stage from progressive to stable and young-middle age stands. The stands DBH structure was mainly influenced by the DBH variety of Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata population. Quantitative classification (ward's method ward) and ordination (PCA) were used to study the community types of sharp-tooth oak. The results showed that the community could be divided into 6 types: 1. Ass. Smilax stans + Rosa multiflora-Quercus variabilis + Ulmus glaucescens-Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata; 2. Ass. Smilax stans + Lespedeza bicolor-Castanea mollissima-Q. aliena var. acuteserrata; 3. Ass. Corylus mandshurica-Populus davidiana + Dendrobenthamia angustata-Q. aliena var. acuteserrata; 4. Ass. Prunus pseudoccrasus + Corylus mandshurica-Toxicodendron vernicifluum-Q. aliena var. acuteserrata; 5. Ass. Corylus mandshurica + Rosa multiflora-Pinus armandii-Q. aliena var. acuteserrata; and 6. Ass. Sinarundinaria nitida-Pinus armandii + Pinus tabulaeformis-Q. aliena var. acuteserrata. Ward's method ward was better for classifying community types than the other clustering analyses in Qinling Mountains. The PCA results were consistent with the clustering, and demonstrated that the sharp-tooth oak stands were influenced by the altitude, site gradient and soil mainly.
China↗
Evolution of ellagitannins in Spanish, French, and American oak woods during natural seasoning and toasting.
The evolution of tannins in Spanish oak heartwood of Quercus robur L., Quercus petraea Liebl.,Quercus pyrenaica Wild., and Quercus faginea Lam. was studied in relation to the processing of wood in barrel cooperage. Their evolution was compared with that of French oak of Q. robur (Limousin, France) and Q. petraea (Allier, France) and American oak of Quercus alba L. (Missouri), which are habitually used in cooperage. Two stages of process were researched: the seasoning of woods during 3 years in natural conditions and toasting. Total phenol and total ellagitannin contents and optical density at 420 nm of wood extracts were determined. The ellagitannins roburins A-E, grandinin, vescalagin, and castalagin were identified and quantified by HPLC, and the molecular weight distribution of ellagitannins was calculated by GPC. During the seasoning process the different ellagitannin concentrations decreased according to the duration of this process and in the same way as those in French and American woods. The toasting process also had an important influence on the ellagitannin composition of wood. Roburins A-E, grandinin, vescalagin, and castalagin decreased during this process in the Spanish wood species, in the same proportion as in the French and American ones. Also, the seasoning and toasting processes lead to qualitative variations in the structure of ellagitannins, especially in the molecular weight distribution, as was evidenced by GPC analysis of their acetylated derivatives.
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
Evolution of phenolic compounds of spanish oak wood during natural seasoning. First results.
Low molecular weight polyphenols and ellagitannins were analyzed by HPLC, and the molecular weight distribution of ellagitannins was calculated by GPC, in oak heartwood of Quercus robur L., Quercus petraea Liebl., Quercus pyrenaica Wild., and Quercus faginea Lam., grown in Spain, before and after 1 year of seasoning, in Bordeaux, France. During this process, the concentrations of low molecular weight polyphenols (acids and aldehydes, benzoic and cinnamic, and coumarins) increased, and those of ellagitannins (castalagin, vescalagin, and roburins A-E) decreased. A similar behavior for the A and B compounds in all species was not found. This modification in the chemical composition was similar in the four Spanish species of Quercus studied and allowed the differentiation between the unseasoned wood and the wood after the first year of seasoning.
Flavonoids↗
[Seasonal changes of nitrogen and phosphorus and their translocation from leaves of ten tree species in central Japan].
The leaves of evergreen broadleaved Quercus cuspidata, Ilex pedunculosa, Ilex rotunda, machilus thunbergii, Pittosporum tobira and deciduous broadleaved Quercus serrata, Quercus variabilis, Celtis sinensis, Ginkgo biloba, and Evodiopanax innovans were collected from the time of full leaf expansion to the end of growing season to describe the seasonal contents of N and P patterns in leaves of these species. The N and P contents in new and old leaves of evergreen Quercus cuspidata and Ilex rotunda had high levels in initial stage, low levels in medium stage, and increased in later stage. The seasonal changes of the N and P contents in new leaves of evergreen Ilex pedunculosa and Pittosporum tobira were similar to those of Quercus cuspidata and Ilex rotunda, whereas in old leaves of the two species, they tended to decline with time. The N content in new and old leaves of Machilus thunbergii tended to increase, whereas their P content tended to decrease. The N and P contents in leaves of deciduous species decreased during the growing season. The N translocation efficiency for all species ranged from 43-75%, whereas their P translocation efficiency ranged from 62-84%. The N translocation efficiency in evergreen broadleaved species was similar to that in deciduous broadleaved species, whereas the P translocation efficiency was higher than the latter. The mean N retranslocation efficiency for all species was higher than mean P retranslocation efficiency.
Nitrogen↗
Degradation of leaf litter phenolics by aquatic and terrestrial isopods.
To investigate species-specific decomposition rates of litter from native (Quercus faginea) and introduced (Eucalyptus globulus) tree species in Portugal, we monitored changes in the phenolic signature of leaf litter during decomposition as mediated by an aquatic, Proasellus coxalis (Isopoda: Asellota), and two terrestrial, Porcellio dispar and Eluma caelatum (Isopoda: Oniscidea), detritivores. Although the litter of Eucalyptus and Quercus did not differ in overall protein precipitation capacity, we detected differences in terms of contents of particular phenolic compounds and phenol oxidation products. Accordingly, we observed food-specific consumption rates in Proasellus, but not in the terrestrial isopods. Proasellus digested Eucalyptus at significantly higher rates than Quercus, whereas the opposite was the case for Eluma, and Porcellio digested both litter types equally well. Despite slight differences in detail, effects of Proasellus on changes in the signature of litter phenolics were similar for both litter types, whereas terrestrial isopods--Porcellio and Eluma, although they differed from each other--digestively degraded phenolic compounds in Eucalyptus and Quercus litter, respectively, in different ways. Overall, however, degradation of litter phenolics was similarly effective on both litter types. From these data, we conclude that decomposition of Eucalyptus litter does not proceed more slowly than of litter from native Portuguese trees.
Animals↗
Intra-annual radial growth and water relations of trees: implications towards a growth mechanism.
There is a missing link between tree physiological and wood-anatomical knowledge which makes it impossible mechanistically to explain and predict the radial growth of individual trees from climate data. Empirical data of microclimatic factors, intra-annual growth rates, and tree-specific ratios between actual and potential transpiration (T PET(-1)) of trees of three species (Quercus pubescens, Pinus sylvestris, and Picea abies) at two dry sites in the central Wallis, Switzerland, were recorded from 2002 to 2004 at a 10 min resolution. This included the exceptionally hot and dry summer of 2003. These data were analysed in terms of direct (current conditions) and indirect impacts (predispositions of the past year) on growth. Rain was found to be the only factor which, to a large extent, consistently explained the radial increment for all three tree species at both sites and in the short term as well. Other factors had some explanatory power on the seasonal time-scale only. Quercus pubescens built up much of its tree ring before bud break. Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies started radial growth 1-2 weeks after Quercus pubescens and this was despite the fact that they had a high T PET(-1) before budburst and radial growth started. A high T PET(-1) was assumed to be related to open stomata, a very high net CO2 assimilation rate, and thus a potential carbon (C)-income for the tree. The main period of radial growth covered about 30-70% of the productive days of a year. In terms of C-allocation, these results mean that Quercus pubescens depended entirely on internal C-stores in the early phase of radial growth and that for all three species there was a long time period of C-assimilation which was not used for radial growth in above-ground wood. The results further suggest a strong dependence of radial growth on the current tree water relations and only secondarily on the C-balance. A concept is discussed which links radial growth over a feedback loop to actual tree water-relations and long-term affected C-storage to microclimate.
Carbon↗
Patterns of leaf conductance and water potential of five Himalayan tree species.
We studied variations in water relations and drought response in five Himalayan tree species (Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. (chilaune) and Castanopsis indica (Roxb.) Miq. (dhale katus) at an elevation of 1400 m, Quercus lanata Smith (banjh) and Rhododendron arboreum Smith (lali gurans) at 2020 m, and Quercus semecarpifolia Smith (khasru) at 2130 m) at Phulchowki Hill, Kathmandu, Nepal. Soil water potential at 15 (Psi(s15)) and 30 cm (Psi(s30)) depths, tree water potential at predawn (Psi(pd)) and midday (Psi(md)), and leaf conductance during the morning (g(wAM)) and afternoon (g(wPM)) were observed from December 1998 to April 2001, except during the monsoon months. There was significant variation among sites, species and months in Psi(pd), Psi(md), g(wAM) and g(wPM), and among months for all species for Psi(s15). Mean Psi(pd) and Psi(md) were lowest in Q. semecarpifolia (-0.40 and -1.18 MPa, respectively) and highest in S. wallichii (-0.20 and -0.63 MPa, respectively). The minimum Psi value for all species (-0.70 to -1.79 MPa) was observed in March 1999, after 4 months of unusually low rainfall. Some patterns of Psi(pd) were related to phenology and leaf damage. During leafing, Psi(pd) often increased. Mean g(wAM) and g(wPM) were highest in Q. semecarpifolia (172 and 190 mmol m(-2) s(-1), respectively) and lowest in C. indica (78 and 74 mmol m(-2) s(-1), respectively). Soil water potential (Psi) at 15 cm depth correlated with plant Psi in all species, but rarely with g(wAM) and not with g(wPM). Plant Psi declined with increasing elevation, whereas g(w) increased. As Psi(pd) declined, so did maximal g(w), but overall, g(w) was correlated with Psi(pd) only for R. arboreum. Schima wallichii maintained high Psi, with low stomatal conductance, as did Castanopsis indica, except that C. indica had low Psi during dry months. Rhododendron arboreum maintained high Psi(pd) and g(w), despite low soil Psi. Quercus lanata had low g(w) and low Psi(pd) in some months, but showed no correlation between tree Psi and g(w). Quercus semecarpifolia, which grows at the highest elevation, had low soil and plant Psi and high g(w).
Dehydration↗
[Species diversity and community structure of forest communities in Lishan Mountain].
Lishan Mountain is belonged to the Zhongtiao Ranges in Southeast Shanxi, and situated between 35 degrees 16'30" - 35 degrees 27'20" N and 111 degrees 51'-- 112 degrees 5'35" E. The climate is cool and arid in winter, but warm and rainy in summer. This paper studied the species diversity and community structure of forest communities there, based on field investigation data and by using diversity, richness and evenness indices. The results showed that the species diversity and evenness of the communities were in the order of Acer davidii + Acer mono > Acer davidii + Carpinus turczaninouii > Quercus liaolugensis > Quercus varibilis > Pinus armandii + Betula albo-sinensis > Pinus tabulaeformis + Quercus glandulifera > Betula platyphylla > Platycladus orientalis + Quercus variabilis > Betula albo-sinensis > Pinus armandii > Platycladus orientalis > Pinus tabulaeformis > Populus davidiana + Betula albo-sinensis. The diversity and richness of shrub layer were higher than those of herb layer and arbor layer, but the evenness of arbor, shrub and herb layers had no significant difference. There were positive correlations (P < 0.05) between Shannon-Wiener index, Hill index, and species richness from 1 000 m to 1 920 m above sea level, but negative correlations (P < 0.05) from 1920 m to the top of the Mountain. The species diversity showed a "mid-altitude bulge" pattern with the change of altitude, and the reason was that the combination of temperature and moisture conditions from 1000 m to 1920 m above sea level was improved, and human disturbance was decreased gradually.
Acer↗
Changes in low molecular weight phenolic compounds in Spanish, French, and American oak woods during natural seasoning and toasting.
The evolution of low molecular weight polyphenols in Spanish oak heartwood of Quercus robur,Quercus petraea, Quercus pyrenaica, and Quercus faginea was studied by HPLC, in relation to the processing of wood in barrel cooperage. The polyphenolic composition of Spanish woods subjected to natural seasoning for 3 years and to the toasting process was studied in relation to those of French oak of Q. robur (Limousin) and Q. petraea (Allier) and American oak of Q. alba (Missouri), which are habitually used in cooperage. The concentrations of benzoic and cinnamic acids and aldehydes of Spanish woods increased during seasoning depending on the duration of this process and in the same way as those of French and American woods. The process having the main influence on the phenolic composition of wood was the toasting. It led to high increases in the concentration of phenolic aldehydes and acids, especially cinnamic aldehydes (sinapic and coniferylic aldehydes), followed by benzoic aldehydes (syringaldehyde and vanillin) and benzoic acids (syringic and vanillic acids). This polyphenolic composition in Spanish oak species evolved during toasting as in French and American oak, but quantitative differences were found, which were especially important in American species with respect to the others.
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
Effects of elevated CO(2) on chloroplast components, gas exchange and growth of oak and cherry.
Specific chloroplast proteins, gas exchange and dry matter production in oak (Quercus robur L.) seedlings and clonal cherry (Prunus avium L. x pseudocerasus Lind.) plants were measured during 19 months of growth in climate-controlled greenhouses at ambient (350 vpm) or elevated (700 vpm) CO(2). In both species, the elevated CO(2) treatment increased the PPFD saturated-rate of photosynthesis and dry matter production. After two months at elevated CO(2), Prunus plants showed significant increases in leaf (55%) and stem (61%) dry mass but not in root dry mass. However, this initial stimulation was not sustained: treatment differences in net assimilation rate (A) and plant dry mass were less after 10 months of growth than after 2 months of growth, suggesting acclimation of A to elevated CO(2) in Prunus. In contrast, after 10 months of growth at elevated CO(2), leaf dry mass of Quercus increased (130%) along with shoot (356%) and root (219%) dry mass, and A was also twice that of plants grown and measured at ambient CO(2). The amounts of Rubisco and the thylakoid-bound protein cytochrome f were higher in Quercus plants grown for 19 months in elevated CO(2) than in control plants, whereas in Prunus there was less Rubisco in plants grown for 19 months in elevated CO(2) than in control plants. Exposure to elevated CO(2) for 10 months resulted in increased mean leaf area in both species and increased abaxial stomatal density in Quercus. There was no change in leaf epidermal cell size in either species in response to the elevated CO(2) treatment. The lack of acclimation of photosynthesis in oak grown at elevated CO(2) is discussed in relation to the production and allocation of dry matter. We propose that differences in carbohydrate utilization underlie the differing long-term CO(2) responses of the two species.
Journal Article↗
Quaternary Ice-Age dynamics in the Colombian Andes: developing an understanding of our legacy.
Pollen records from lacustrine sediments of deep basins in the Colombian Andes provide records of vegetation history, the development of the floristic composition of biomes, and climate variation with increasing temporal resolution. Local differences in the altitudinal distribution of present-day vegetation belts in four Colombian Cordilleras are presented. Operating mechanisms during Quaternary Ice-Age cycles that stimulated speciation are discussed by considering endemism in the asteraceous genera Espeletia, Espeletiopsis and Coespeletia. The floristically diverse lower montane forest belt (1000-2300 m) was compressed by ca. 55% during the last glacial maximum (LGM) (20 ka), and occupied the slopes between 800 m and 1400 m during that period. Under low LGM atmospheric pCO2 values, C4-dominated vegetation, now occurring below 2200 m, expanded up to ca. 3500 m. Present-day C3-dominated paramo vegetation is therefore not an analogue for past C4-dominated vegetation (with abundant Sporobolus lasiophyllus). Quercus immigrated into Colombia 478 ka and formed an extensive zonal forest from 330 ka when former Podocarpus-dominated forest was replaced by zonal forest with Quercus and Weinmannia. During the last glacial cycle the ecological tolerance of Quercus may have increased. In the ecotone forests Quercus was rapidly and massively replaced by Polylepis between 45 and 30 ka illustrating complex forest dynamics in the tropical Andes.
Altitude↗
Effects of elevated CO2 on foliar quality and herbivore damage in a scrub oak ecosystem.
Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased exponentially over the last century and continuing increases are expected to have significant effects on ecosystems. We investigated the interactions among atmospheric CO2, foliar quality, and herbivory within a scrub oak community at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Sixteen plots of open-top chambers were followed; eight of which were exposed to ambient levels of CO2 (350 ppm), and eight of which were exposed to elevated levels of CO2 (700 ppm). We focused on three oak species, Quercus geminata, Quercus myrtifolia, Quercus chapmanii, and one nitrogen fixing legume, Galactia elliottii. There were declines in overall nitrogen and increases in C:N ratios under elevated CO2. Total carbon, phenolics (condensed tannins, hydrolyzable tannins, total phenolics) and fiber (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin) did not change under elevated CO2 across plant species. Plant species differed in their relative foliar chemistries over time, however, the only consistent differences were higher nitrogen concentrations and lower C:N ratios in the nitrogen fixer when compared to the oak species. Under elevated CO2, damage by herbivores decreased for four of the six insect groups investigated. The overall declines in both foliar quality and herbivory under elevated CO2 treatments suggest that damage to plants may decline as atmospheric CO2 levels continue to rise.
Atmosphere↗