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PubMed2004

Polymeric controlled release formulations of niclosamide for control of Biomphalaria alexandrina, the vector snail of schistosomiasis.

Schistosomiasis is one of the most important public health problems in many developing countries. The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of the polymeric niclosamide formulations against Biomphalaria alexandrina snails, the intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni in Egypt. Three new polymeric formulations were prepared for the molluscicide niclosamide. The formulations were prepared either by the chemical modifications of poly(glycidyl methacrylate) or by physical entrapment of the niclosamide in calcium alginate beads. The release of the niclosamide from the polymeric formulations was investigated. The activity of the prepared formulations against Biomphalaria alexandrina was investigated. The results obtained revealed higher potency for polymerized niclosamide B3 than B1; the lowest potency was revealed for B2. After an exposure period of 24 hours, LC(50) values were 0.073, 0.098 and 1.09 ppm for B3, B1 and B2, respectively. In addition, the molluscicidal potency of the test polymeric niclosamide was age-dependent, where old snails were more tolerant to the test solutions than young and newly hatched snails. The results also indicated that the molluscicidal activity of B3 was extended for 21 days and 17 days for B1, compared with 5 days for free niclosamide. However, the molluscicidal potency of the polymerized niclosamide was increased after boiling for one hour, and was increased with increasing the pH of the medium to pH 9. In addition, their potency was increased with decreasing the water hardness concentrations (CaCO(3)).Molluscicidal activity of free niclosamide and its polymeric formulations vs. exposure time.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Actin polymerization in the equatorial and postacrosomal regions of guinea pig spermatozoa during the acrosome reaction is regulated by G proteins.

The acrosome reaction (AR) is an exocytotic process of spermatozoa, and an absolute requirement for fertilization. During AR, actin polymerization is necessary in the equatorial and postacrosomal regions of guinea pig sperm for spermatozoa incorporation deep into the egg cytoplasm, but not for plasma membrane (PM) fusion nor the early steps of egg activation. To identify the mechanisms involved in this sperm actin polymerization, we searched for the protein members, known to be involved in a highly conserved model, that may apply to any cellular process in which de novo actin polymerization occurs from G protein activation. WASP, Arp 2/3, profilins I and II, and Cdc42, RhoA and RhoB GTPases were localized by indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) in guinea pig spermatozoa and their presence corroborated by Western blotting. WASP and profilin II were translocated to the postacrosomal region (Arp2/3 already were there) in long-term capacitated and acrosome-reacted spermatozoa, at the same time as actin polymerization occurred. These events were inhibited by GDP-beta-S and promoted by lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and GTP-gamma-S, a small GTPase inhibitor and two activators, respectively. By immunoprecipitation, Cdc42-WASp association was identified in capacitated but not in noncapacitated gametes. Polymerized actin in the postacrosomal region is apparently anchored both to the postacrosomal perinuclear theca region and the overlying PM. Results suggest that GTPases are involved in sperm actin polymerization, in the postacrosomal region and the mechanism for polymerization might fit a previously proposed model (Mullins, 2000: Curr Opin Cell Biol 12:91-96).

Acrosome↗
PubMed2005

Vine-twining polymerization: a new preparation method for well-defined supramolecules composed of amylose and synthetic polymers.

In this article we describe a new method of polymerization called "vine-twining polymerization" for preparation of well-defined supramolecules, which are amylose-polymer inclusion complexes. The method was achieved by enzymatic polymerization of alpha-D-glucose-1-phosphate catalyzed by phosphorylase in the presence of various synthetic polymers such as polyethers, polyesters, poly(ester-ether), and amphiphilic block copolymer. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) and 1H-NMR measurements determined the structures of the products to be inclusion complexes. The XRD patterns were completely different from those of amylose and guest polymers. The 1H-NMR spectra of the products indicated that the structures were composed of amylose and guest polymers. The formation process of the inclusion complexes during the enzymatic polymerization was also evaluated. In addition, we revealed that the bulkiness of the end groups and the hydrophobicity of the guest polymers strongly affected the formation of the inclusion complexes. By means of this method of polymerization, a graft polymer having inclusion complexes as side chains was prepared. Furthermore, as an evolution of the "vine-twining polymerization," we attempted a system of parallel polymerization to form an inclusion complex of amylose with a strongly hydrophobic guest polymer.

Amylose↗
PubMed1995

A mechanism for induction of the SOS response in E. coli: insights into the regulation of reversible protein polymerization in vivo.

During normal DNA replication, RecA, the principal recombinational repair enzyme of E. coli, cannot assemble its filament on SSB-bound single-stranded DNA at the replication forks. This behavior is paralleled in vitro, where at low Mg2+ concentrations RecA can not polymerize on SSB-bound single-stranded DNA. Inhibition of DNA replication in vivo renders RecA able to polymerize on SSB-bound single-stranded DNA and to activate the SOS response. Although the mechanism of SOS induction is still obscure, abundant in vitro observations indicate that RecA filament formation on SSB-bound single-stranded DNA is facilitated at elevated concentrations of ATP, Mg2+ and spermidine. It is proposed here that inhibition of DNA synthesis in vivo leads to a similar accumulation of ATP and its counter-ions, Mg2+ and spermidine, resulting ultimately in SOS induction. When DNA synthesis is restored, the concentration of ATP, Mg2+ and spermidine returns to normal levels, favoring RecA depolymerization. On the basis of the known structure of RecA, a mechanism for reversible RecA polymerization is presented. In a RecA polymer, the monomers are known to interact with each other primarily through hydrophobic, oppositely charged surfaces. In conditions suboptimal for polymerization, these hydrophobic surfaces of the monomers are possibly masked by electrostatic interactions with other, oppositely charged domains of the monomers. There are known recombinational repair proteins whose specific functions are likely to assist in RecA polymerization or depolymerization. Features of reversible polymerization of eukaryotic proteins tubulin and actin are consistent with the possibility that RecA exploits a general principle for the regulation of reversible protein polymerization.

Actins↗
PubMed1998

Presence of polymerized and free forms of the non-toxic type 2 ribosome-inactivating protein ebulin and a structurally related new homodimeric lectin in fruits of Sambucus ebulus L.

Mature leaves of dwarf elder (Sambucus ebulus L.) contain the non-toxic type 2 ribosome-inactivating protein ebulin 1 (Girbés et al., 1993b, J. Biol. Chem. 268: 18195-18199). We have now found that the green fruits of dwarf elder contain both free and polymerized forms of ebulin (ebulin f) and a new homodimeric D-galactose-binding lectin (SELfd). Polymerized material containing ebulin and lectin is composed of aggregates of variable relative molecular mass, some of them being close to 250,000. These aggregate forms are maintained in part by reducible disulphide bridges and reconstitute from reductant-free dialyzed material previously reduced with 2-mercaptoethanol. Direct incubation of free ebulin f with the free SELfd did not lead to polymerization, thus indicating that polymerization triggers some kind of substantial and perhaps catalyzed change in the structure of these proteins. Ebulin-containing polymerized material reacts with anti-ebulin f antibodies. Our results indicate that ebulin f is a fruit-form of ebulin 1. In contrast to green fruits, mature fruits lack both polymerized material and ebulin f, thus indicating some kind of reserve role for them in green fruits. Polymerization of ebulin and the dimeric lectin may represent a novel means of storing the non-toxic type 2 ribosome-inactivating proteins and lectins found in highly metabolic tissues, such as green fruits.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2005

Evaluation of polymerization-dependent changes in color and translucency of resin composites using two formulae.

The aim of this study was to evaluate polymerization-dependent changes in the color and translucency parameter (TP) of resin composites and to compare results obtained using two color-difference metric formulae, CIELAB and CIEDE 2000. Twenty-eight shades of commercial resin composites were analyzed. Specimens (n = 5) were made as discs, 11 mm in diameter and 2-mm thick, using cylindrical molds. Data were collected before and after composite polymerization, using a spectrophotometer. In regard to in vitro color changes of composites (DeltaE*) a DeltaE76 of 3.7 or greater was considered to be an unacceptable color change. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance, and Fisher's protected least significant difference (PLSD) intervals for comparison of means were calculated at the 0.05 level of significance. Mean polymerization-dependent differences in color were DeltaE00 = 4.48 (2.11) and DeltaE76 = 5.51 (2.68). The DeltaTP00 range was 2.57, while the DeltaTP76 range was 2.89. Mean polymerization-dependent differences in translucency were DeltaTP00 = 0.84 (0.77) and DeltaTP76 = 0.87 (0.76). Analysis of variance showed significant differences among composites, shades, and their interactions (P < 0.0001; power = 1.0). Regression equations and r values for the two color-difference formulae and all evaluated TP values showed very strong correlation. In conclusion, within the limitations of this study, polymerization-dependent changes in color and translucency were highly varied. The majority of shades showed polymerization-dependent differences in color higher than the DeltaE76 = 3.7. The TP generally increased after light polymerization by light activation. The very strong correlation (r > 0.97) between the two color-difference formulae indicates that the limitations of the CIELAB system do not appear to be a problem when evaluating composites; however, recorded differences between DeltaE76 and DeltaE00 values stress the importance of data conversion.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1979

Seeding role of spectrin in polymerization of skeletal muscle actin.

The effect of spectrin on the polymerization of muscle actin has been investigated by hydrodynamic methods and electron microscopy. Spectrin markedly accelerated polymerization of actin. The effect was more easily observed in lower concentrations of KCl (e.g. 24 mM) where spontaneous polymerization was negligibly small. Similarly large acceleration was observed for polymerization in MgCl2 or CaCl2. The rate of polymerization of actin was proportionally increased with the concentration of spectrin added to a fixed concentration of action. The stationary level of specific viscosity also increased with the spectrin concentration, but at larger concentrations it became smaller. The flow birefringence and electron microscope measurements indicated that actin polymers formed under the influence of spectrin were shorter than those of control F-actin filaments. The structural viscosity and electron microscope observations suggested that the interaction between F-actin fibers was not increased by spectrin. These data strongly suggest a seeding role of spectrin in the polymerization of actin. Spectrin accelerates formation of the nuclei for polymerization. The more the nuclei are formed, the larger the number of the grown polymers are and this leads to rapid formation of shorter polymers since the amount of actin is limited. The acceleration activity was found only in freshly prepared spectrin from fresh ghosts taken from freshly drawn blood.

Actins↗
PubMed1981

Polymerization of G-actin by hydrodynamic shear stresses.

In the absence of Ca2+ G-actin can be polymerized by the application of shear stress in low ionic strength buffer. When G-actin in low ionic strength buffer containing EGTA was sheared for predetermined times under different velocity gradients, viscosity attained a maximal value, comparable to that obtained by seeding with F-actin nuclei, at a velocity gradient of 3000 s-1 after about one hour. Such flow-polymerized actin was indistinguishable from KCl-polymerized actin. Under similar conditions, EDTA which can bind both Ca2+ and Mg2+, gave a smaller effect than the Ca2+-chelating agent EGTA which binds Mg2+ weakly. When an Mg2+ salt was added to EDTA- or EGTA-containing buffer to give a free Mg2+ concentration of a few micromoles/liter, flow-induced polymerization was significantly enhanced. It appears that occupancy of only a small fraction of the high affinity binding sites by Ca2+ prevents flow-polymerization while Mg2+ may enhance this type of polymerization by replacing Ca2+. We speculate that the shear stress induces polymerization by promoting nucleation and that Ca2+ bound to the high affinity divalent cation binding site inhibits formation of the nuclei.

Actins↗
PubMed1981

Ligand-dependent polymerization of tetrameric hemoglobin from the blood clam Anadara broughtonii.

Hemoglobin (Hb II) of the blood clam Anadara broughtonii has a alpha 2 beta 2 sub-unit structure in athe oxy form with a sedimentation constant of 4.8 S. When deoxygenated, Hb II polymerizes with a major component, S20,w = 11.5 (above 150 microM in heme). Deoxy polymerization was not observed in a highly diluted protein below 20 microM (in heme). Gel filtration of Hb II in the deoxygenated state indicated that the major component has an apparent molecular weight of 195 000, which corresponds to a dodecamer. However, the sedimentation pattern and the elution profile of gel filtration showed the polymerization to be somewhat asymmetric. These results suggest that deoxy Hb II may polymerize with different polymerization states. We examined oxygen equilibria of Hb II in a range of 3--180 microM (in heme). Influences of the polymerization on its oxygen affinity and cooperativity were found to be very small. We have also found that the deoxy polymerization was completely prevented when all the sulfhydryl groups of the hemoglobin molecule were modified with p-chloromercuribenzoate.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Uptake and metabolism of polymerized albumin by rat liver. Role of the scavenger receptor.

Hepatitis B virus binds avidly to albumin polymers, which in turn may mediate viral attachment to liver cells. This hypothesis is critically dependent on prior results obtained using glutaraldehyde-polymerized human serum albumin as a model for naturally occurring albumin species. We used the perfused rat liver to characterize the uptake, cellular distribution, and metabolism of glutaraldehyde-polymerized human albumin. 125I-glutaraldehyde-polymerized human albumin was efficiently removed from the perfusate by the liver (29% extraction). However, few autoradiographic grains were located over hepatic parenchymal cells (6%). Instead, most glutaraldehyde-polymerized human albumin appeared to be removed by endothelial (59%) or Kupffer (31%) cells. Hepatic uptake was strongly inhibited by formaldehyde-treated monomeric albumin, a known ligand of the endothelial scavenger receptor for chemically modified proteins. After uptake, most glutaraldehyde-polymerized human albumin was rapidly degraded and released into the perfusate (74% within 60 min). This process was blocked by chloroquine and leupeptin, suggesting that it involves lysosomal acid hydrolases. We conclude that glutaraldehyde-polymerized albumin is efficiently cleared and degraded by the endothelial scavenger pathway. Glutaraldehyde-polymerized albumin therefore appears to be a poor model for predicting the hepatic handling of naturally occurring albumin species bound to hepatitis B virions. Even if viral particles were to follow this pathway, few would enter parenchymal hepatocytes.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Temporal changes in islet polymerized and depolymerized tubulin during biphasic insulin release.

In the present study, a colchicine binding assay was used to measure changes in islet polymerized and depolymerized tubulin at intervals characterizing the biphasic pattern of glucose-induced insulin release i.e., 2.5, 5.5, 10.5, and 30.5 min. At 2.5 min during the rapid onset of insulin release, a significant increase from 24% to 33% in polymerized tubulin content was observed. This increase in polymerized tubulin was followed by a reduction that temporally correlated with the disappearance of first phase release. Second phase release was also associated with a shift in equilibrium favoring tubulin polymerization at longer incubation periods. The effect of cytochalasin B on the equilibrium between polymerized and depolymerized tubulin was evaluated at a submaximal glucose concentration of 16.5 mM. Under these conditions, cytochalasin B increased polymerized tubulin content in a manner that parallels its enhancing effect on insulin release. These results indicate that the rapid events associated with the biphasic pattern of insulin release are temporally correlated with changes in polymerized tubulin.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Inhibition of plasminogen activation by polymerized ampicillin.

The polymerized beta-lactam antibiotic ampicillin inhibits the proteolytic activity of human plasmin upon 125I-labeled fibrin clots. The inhibition is dose-dependent, with half-maximal inhibition occurring at 1.25 mM of the polymerized antibiotic. Polymerized ampicillin also inhibits binding of plasmin to fibrin, and 38% inhibition of binding occurs at 10 mM of the antibiotic. Furthermore, polymerized ampicillin inhibits the activation of plasminogen by either urokinase-like plasminogen activator (uPA) or tissue type-plasminogen activator (tPA). At 7.5 mM of polymerized ampicillin, the uPA-mediated plasminogen activation is suppressed by 94%, and half-maximal inhibition is obtained at 0.66 mM. The direct activity of uPA on the chromogenic substrate L-pyroglutamyl-glycyl-L-arginine p-nitroanilide hydrochloride (S-2444) is unaffected by polymerized ampicillin levels of up to 10 mM. The inhibitory effects of the polymerized antibiotic on the activation of plasminogen by both uPA and tPA is totally abolished in presence of fibrin. These interactions may serve as a novel model for ligands that enhance the clot-specificity of thrombolytic agents.

Ampicillin↗
PubMed1986

Effect of polymeric IgG on human accessory cell function.

Circulating immune complexes are considered to have a profound effect on host defense mechanisms against invading pathogens and to modulate cellular interactions required for an appropriate course of the immune response. In this study we have investigated the influence of polymeric IgG (used as a model system for immune complexes) on accessory functions of human monocytes. We show that a short (1 hr) incubation of human monocytes in the presence of polymeric IgG (16 hr prior to antigen pulsing) led to a significant decrease of these cells' antigen-presenting capacity while accessory functions in alloantigen- or mitogen-driven proliferation systems remained unimpaired. The polymeric IgG-induced impairment of antigen presentation, which was assessed by diminished proliferation of antigen-reactive T cells following stimulation by antigen-pulsed polymeric IgG-treated or Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (PBS-D)-treated control monocytes, could not be attributed to the generation of suppressor mechanisms (no release of soluble suppressor factors, no induction of suppressive monocytes). The release of interleukin-1 by polymeric IgG-treated monocytes and PBS-D-treated monocytes was comparable and polymeric IgG did not down modulate major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules already expressed in the monocyte plasma membrane. Profound changes in the monocyte plasma membrane occurring subsequent to polymeric IgG treatment possibly accompanied by altered kinetics of MHC class II reexpression are likely to contribute to the observed decrease of antigen presentation.

Antigen-Presenting Cells↗
PubMed1992

Curing light performance and polymerization of composite restorative materials.

The majority of modern composite restorative materials require light activation for polymerization. Variables affecting light energy absorption by the composite have been examined for their effect on the polymerization contraction. Since the polymerization contraction is closely associated in a complex way to the degree of cure of the restoration, this parameter served as an empirical indicator for the extent of polymerization. Variables included the composite shade, distance between the light source and composite sample, and light intensity. Three resin composites are evaluated. Post-gel polymerization contraction was evaluated using a strain gauge method. Curing light intensity diminished rapidly for distances greater than 2 mm between the tip of the light guide and material surface. A linear relationship was demonstrated between polymerization contraction and light intensity. The polymerization contraction of a microfilled composite and posterior composite, using a constant curing time and light intensity, decreased linearly with increasing sample thickness. Less than optimal light output of the curing light source can be compensated by increasing application time within reasonable limits.

Composite Resins↗
PubMed1986

Dynamic light-scattering study on polymerization process of muscle actin.

Globular actin (G-actin) polymerizes into a fibrous form (F-actin) under physiological salt conditions. The polymerization process of muscle actin was studied by a dynamic light-scattering method. The intensity correlation functions G2(tau) of scattered light from a G-actin solution containing 2 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) and 0.1 mM ATP were analyzed by a cumulant expansion method, and the translational diffusion coefficient was determined to be D = (8.07 +/- 0.10) X 10(-7) cm2/s at 20 degrees C. This D value gave a diameter of 5.3 nm for spherical G-actin including a hydration layer. Polymerization of 1-3 mg/ml G-actin in a solution containing 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 0.2 mM ATP and 60 mM KCl was followed by successive measurements of G2(tau) for a data accumulation period of 60-300 s/run. The time evolution of G2(tau) was analyzed by a least-squares fitting to the field correlation function of a multiexponential form g1(tau) = sigma iAi exp(-gamma i tau) with gamma 1 greater than gamma 2 greater than 3 greater than ..., and the static scattering intensity I(t) = mean value of I as a function of time t after initiation of polymerization was decomposed as I(t) = mean value of I sigma iAi. At the early stage of polymerization, a two-exponential fit gave results indicating that component 1 came from G-actin and component 2 from F-actin growing linearly with t. At the middle stage of polymerization, a three-exponential fit gave the results that component 1 came from G-actin and possibly its small oligomers, component 2 from polymers with a number-average length Ln of about 900 nm which was independent of t, and component 3 from 'ghosts' in dynamic light scattering in a semidilute regime. Component 3 was concluded to arise from restricted motions of polymers with lengths much longer than Ln in cages formed by polymers giving component 2, and a fragmentation-elongation process of F-actin was suggested to start at the middle stage of polymerization, resulting in the size redistribution of F-actin.

Actins↗
PubMed1995

Sequences of actin implicated in the polymerization process: a simplified mathematical approach to probe the role of these segments.

Regulation of actin polymerization and depolymerization is essential for the functions of actin in non-muscle cells and is mediated by a large number of heterologous actin-binding proteins which questions their true impact on the polymerization process. As a model, we report here the modulating effect of monospecific antibody fragments (Fab) as in vitro effectors on actin polymerization kinetics. Polymerization curves were obtained through fluorescence measurements. They were fitted using analytical equations derived from classical models describing the actin polymerization process with the aim of identifying kinetic steps potentially altered by the effectors. The study was limited to three short segments bore by the 300-328 sequence which is located in actin subdomain 3 and implicated in one of the monomer-monomer interfaces. We observed that antibodies which inhibited actin polymerization reacted with both G- and F-actins, modulated both nucleation and elongation steps, enhanced actin monomer dissociation from the filament and apparently did not act as capping or sequestering proteins. Among the antibody populations specific for a restricted and selected sequence in subdomain 3 of actin (sequence 300-326), only those directed to epitopes located near Met 305 and 325 were effective. In contrast, antibodies directed towards the alpha-helix located between the two preceding epitopes had no effect. All the results analyzed here emphasize the important role of some discrete regions and their conformational state in regulation of the interconversion between monomeric and polymeric actins which could be controlled in different ways by the various actin-binding proteins.

Actins↗
PubMed2007

Headspace-solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography as a tool to define an index that establishes the retention capacity of the wine polymeric fraction towards ethyl esters.

A headspace-solid phase microextraction followed by gas chromatographic analysis (HS-SPME-GC) was developed to be applied in the study of the interactions between the wine polymeric fraction and the ethyl esters: ethyl hexanoate, ethyl octanoate, and ethyl decanoate. Wine models (WM) were prepared with 10% (v/v) aqueous ethanol at pH 3.5 with distinct wine polymeric concentrations prepared from white wine of Vitis vinifera L. var. Fernão-Pires: 1.0 g L(-1) (PWM1), with a polymeric concentration approaching the real one in wine; 10.0 g L(-1) (PWM10); and 30.0 g L(-1) (PWM30), saturated with polymeric fraction. A reference wine model (RWM) was prepared without polymeric fraction. Each volatile compound (4.0 mg L(-1)) was added separately to the RWM and to the WM with the three levels of polymeric material (PWM). From the retention index (RI) calculated for each compound using the formula: [RI = 1 - (C(RWM) - C(PWM))/C(RWM)], where C(RWM) is the concentration of the compound in the RWM and C(PWM) is the concentration of the compound in the given PWM, the retention capacity of each wine polymeric fraction towards the three esters was established. The higher retention indexes were observed for ethyl decanoate, the more hydrophobic compound, and for the PWM with higher concentration. Furthermore, this study also suggested that the retained compounds are dosed to the headspace, which may promote the perception of their aroma for a longer period of time.

Adsorption↗
PubMed2004

A polymeric membrane dressing with antinociceptive properties: analysis with a rodent model of stab wound secondary hyperalgesia.

UNLABELLED: The putative antinociceptive properties of a commercially available polymeric membrane dressing were tested by using a hind limb penetrating stab wound model in which secondary hyperalgesia could be evaluated from the hind paw. We examined the responses to mechanical and thermal stimuli applied to the hind paw remote to 2 small penetrating stab wounds of the calf. Application of the polymeric membrane dressing, but not gauze dressing, significantly reduced the development of both mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia induced by the penetrating stab wounds. In addition, animals with stab wounds showed a significant decrease in cage activity, and this decrease was prevented by application of the polymeric dressing. Analysis of spinal cord Fos expression demonstrated that the polymeric membrane, but not gauze, dressing significantly decreased stab wound-induced Fos expression in laminae I to VI of the ipsilateral L3-L5 cord segments. In addition, application of the polymeric membrane, but not gauze, dressing to the hind limb of naïve animals elicited Fos expression in laminae III and IV of the lumbar spinal cord. The data indicate that this model might be useful for evaluation of the mechanisms underlying deep tissue injury-induced secondary hyperalgesia, but they also demonstrate that the polymeric membrane dressing tested is capable of significantly reducing secondary hyperalgesia. PERSPECTIVE: Surgery and other types of penetrating wounds cause pain that is not always relieved by opioids and/or less potent analgesics. The present results suggest that the polymeric membrane dressing tested here may be used alone or in conjunction with analgesics to relieve pain caused by penetrating tissue injury.

Administration, Topical↗