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PubMed2002

Harm to the liver among employees of the Municipal Police Force.

The purpose of the study is to assess whether employees of the Municipal Police Force of a big city exposed to urban pollution are at risk of hepatotoxicity. The usual clinical practice tests like AST, ALT, gamma-GT, AP, conjugated and total bilirubin were carried out, accompanied by a questionnaire designed to identify the possible risk factors and the principal non-professional confounding factors for hepatotoxicity. The study covered 118 male Municipal Police employees performing traffic duties and 118 male blood donors engaged in office work. There were significant differences between exposed and controls with regard to the average AST and ALT values and values above the normal laboratory range; this was also the case for the distribution. The results suggest that there may be the possibility of liver damage among asymptomatic members of the Municipal Police Force and that periodic hepatic screening, with the above-mentioned tests, could be useful. It is presumed that chemical agents present in urban air in big cities may cause damage to the liver, even at exposure levels that fluctuate around the admissible environmental concentrations.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Automated external defibrillator (AED) utilization rates and reasons fire and police first responders did not apply AEDs.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the rate at which fire and police first responders (FRs) apply automated external defibrillators (AEDs) and to ascertain reasons for not applying them. METHODS: Twenty-one emergency medical services (EMS) systems whose FRs had been supplied with AEDs by a philanthropic foundation provided data for all out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients. Data including the incidence of AED application and explanations for not applying AEDs were analyzed using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: A total of 2,456 OHCAs were reported. AED application information was available for 2,439 patients and revealed that FRs had not applied AEDs to 1,025 patients (42%). Fire FRs were more likely than police FRs to have applied AEDs (relative risk 1.87, 95% confidence interval 1.65-2.12). Reasons for not applying AEDs were listed for 664 (65%) of the OHCA patients to whom AEDs had not been applied. The predominant reason the FRs did not apply an AED was that the transporting ambulance defibrillator had already been applied (74%). However, when response times for FRs and the transporting ambulances were compared for these OHCA patients, it was found that the transporting ambulances arrived after the FRs 23% the time, simultaneously with the FRs 45% of the time, and before the FRs only 32% of the time. CONCLUSION: Fire and police FRs did not apply AEDs to a significant number of OHCA patients. Use of the transport ambulance defibrillator was the primary reason given for not applying the FR AED. Given low AED application rates by FRs, future studies are needed to determine the characteristics of communities in which equipping FRs with AEDs is the most beneficial deployment strategy, and how to increase AED application by FRs in communities with FR AED programs.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Law Enforcement Agency Defibrillation (LEA-D): proceedings of the National Center for Early Defibrillation Police AED Issues Forum.

Why does LEA-D intervention seem to work in some systems but not others? Panelists agreed that some factors that delay rapid access to treatment, such as long travel distances in rural areas, may represent insurmountable barriers. Other factors, however, may be addressed more readily. These include: absence of a medical response culture, discomfort with the role of medical intervention, insecurity with the use of medical devices, a lack of proactive medical direction, infrequent refresher training, and dependence on EMS intervention. Panelists agreed that successful LEA-D programs possess ten key attributes (Table 6). In the end, the goal remains "early" defibrillation, not "police" defibrillation. It does not matter whether the rescuer wears a blue uniform--or any uniform, for that matter--so long as the defibrillator reaches the victim quickly. If LEA personnel routinely arrive at medical emergencies after other emergency responders or after 8 minutes have elapsed from the time of collapse, an LEA-D program will be unlikely to provide added value. Similarly, if police frequently arrive first, but the department is unwilling or unable to cultivate the attributes of successful LEA-D programs, efforts to improve survival may not be realized. In most communities, however, LEA-D programs have tremendous lifesaving potential and are well worth the investment of time and resources. Law enforcement agencies considering adoption of AED programs should review the frequency with which police arrive first at medical emergencies and LEA response intervals to determine whether AED programs might help improve survival in their communities. It is time for law enforcement agency defibrillation to become the rule, not the exception.

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Institution of a police automated external defibrillation program: concepts and practice.

The authors have successfully implemented automated external defibrillation (AED) training in police departments that function as first responders. The initial elements are to think the project through, and to develop clear policies and procedures for the police as they relate to dispatching so there is timeliness of notification, because response time is such a critical element. Roles for all of the participants must be clearly defined and understood by all parties for such aspects as scene management, scene responsibility of care, and transfer of care to the receiving facilities. Communication to the entire health care community that the police have an expanded role in defibrillation is desirable. A system to evaluate training, compliance with protocol, and efficacy must be developed and closely monitored. While this is a tremendous amount of work and a large time investment, the result can be a dramatic increase in patient survival.

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation↗
PubMed2003

Alcohol and domestic violence in a sample of incidents reported to the police of Zurich City.

The purpose of the study is to examine episodes of domestic violence reported to the police, focusing on the drinking behavior of the individuals involved. Over a period of 110 days, (November 1999-February 2000) a total of 53 calls to the emergency line of the police of the city of Zurich (Switzerland), related to domestic violence, were registered. Detailed data concerning the forms of violence, the persons involved, their alcohol intake, and the context of the incidents were collected in 42 cases by means of structured interviews of the officers who achieved the interventions and inquiries. Moreover, interviews by agreement of victims were performed in 12 cases, providing complementary data. Evidence of alcohol involvement was found in 40% of the investigated situations. Police officers thus believed there was a clear link between alcohol and violence in at least 26% of the 42 cases. The interviews of the victims suggest a wide range of attributions made to the role of alcohol in situations of domestic violence.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Physical activity, fitness and body composition of Finnish police officers: a 15-year follow-up study.

This study evaluated changes in the physical activity, fitness and body composition of 103 police officers during a 15-year follow-up. The absolute aerobic capacity was similar in 1981 and 1996, muscular performance had declined, and body weight had increased approximately 0.5 kg/year. More than half the subjects (53%) had increased their leisure-time physical activity in 1996. The correlation was significant between physical activity in 1981 and physical fitness in 1996, but weak between physical activity in 1996 and fitness in 1996. It was also significant between waist circumference and waist/hip ratio in 1996 and physical activity during the previous 5 and 15 years. No significant correlations were found between physical activity and work ability or perceived physical or mental job stress. The physical fitness of middle-aged police officers seems to be predicted strongly by physical activity in early adulthood. Therefore health and fitness promotion measures should start at that time. This, together with regular systematic training, should help to sustain work ability of middle-aged police officers.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Correlates of physical activity among middle-aged Finnish male police officers.

BACKGROUND: Few studies exist on adherence to exercise within specific occupational groups. AIMS: This study aimed at identifying factors explaining leisure-time physical activity among middle-aged Finnish police officers. METHODS: Middle-aged police officers (n = 103) participated in the study in 1981 and 1996. Frequency of and adherence to leisure-time physical activity and fitness were assessed. RESULTS: The factor 'enjoyment' was the most powerful determinant for both physical activity and fitness, but all the factors studied accounted for only 10% of the variability. Leisure-time physical activity in 1981 correlated significantly with leisure-time physical activity in 1996. CONCLUSIONS: The physical activity of the middle-aged police officers can be in part predicted from their physical activity in early adulthood. Enjoyment related to physical activity seems to be important with respect to enhancing adherence. Perhaps, being fit increases the feeling of enjoyment during exercise.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Physical fitness, absenteeism and workers' compensation in smoking and non-smoking police officers.

BACKGROUND: Employers seek to minimize business costs by creating conditions of employment. Relying on the presumably negative effects of smoking on variables such as workers' compensation claims, absenteeism and physical fitness scores, they seek a rational basis for requirements that employees refrain from smoking. No research has been found on police officer smoking rates relating to physical fitness, and the resulting economic variables of workers' compensation claims and absenteeism rates. AIMS: To compare police officer non-smoker and smoker physical fitness, absenteeism rates and workers' compensation claims. METHODS: The sample included 514 officers of a metropolitan police department. A physical fitness test was administered. Smoking status, yearly absenteeism rates and workers' compensation claims were collected. RESULTS: Male smokers were significantly older than non-smokers. An analysis of covariance controlling for sex and age indicated that smokers had significantly (P < or = 0.05) lower fitness scores in sit and reach flexibility, sit-ups endurance, bench press strength and bicycle ergometer cardiovascular endurance. When neither age nor sex was controlled in males, a similar trend continued. However, in females only the sit and reach and sit-up tests demonstrated statistically significant differences. Fat percentage, step-test scores, absenteeism rates and workers' compensation claims were not statistically different. CONCLUSION: These data do not provide a rational basis for the requirement that officers refrain from smoking when considering body fat and the economic savings of lower absenteeism rates and workers' compensation. To some extent, smoking policies can be justified by officers' physical fitness but there are age, gender and test protocol considerations.

Absenteeism↗
PubMed1994

Occupational exposure to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected blood in Denver, Colorado, police officers.

The authors undertook a study of Denver, Colorado, police department officers to measure their risk of exposure to blood and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) by type of work assignment and to document how exposures occurred. From December 1989 through March 1991, 137 officers reported an exposure to either blood or saliva, and 42 exposures to blood were independently documented. The overall rate of exposure to HIV-infected blood for medium and high risk assignments was 0.10 per 10,000 person-days. Thirty-two source persons underwent voluntary testing for HIV antibodies, and five (15.6%) were seropositive. Two thirds of the 42 blood exposures occurred in circumstances in which 1) there was little or no time for the officer to put on protective gloves and clothing because the officer was restraining or being assaulted by a suspect or 2) gloves would have not been protective because of penetration by needles. The authors conclude that Denver police officers rarely have percutaneous or mucosal exposures to blood, but when they do, the risk of exposure to HIV-infected blood is quite high. A health department can provide to police officers a number of services: evaluation of an incident involving contact with blood or body fluids to determine whether there was potential for disease transmission; information about modes of transmission and prevention of bloodborne diseases; serologic testing of source persons; HIV counseling for exposed officers and source persons; documentation for worker's compensation claims; and consultation regarding the use of zidovudine for postexposure prophylaxis.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The good practice of the police: an alternative approach in dealing with offenders who abuse/misuse alcohol.

The office of constable is taken by declaration and specifically says '... prevent all offences against the persons and properties ...'. The police service, like many hospitals and particularly casualty units, comes into initial contact with a high proportion of society's problems, including those related to people who cannot handle alcohol. This results directly or indirectly in a significant number of issues affecting social life detrimentally and at a tremendous cost to the public purse. These points at some time or another have been adequately illustrated by articles or television documentaries. The police service has a duty to prevent crime. The author maintains that, through the collaboration of the criminal justice agencies and health services, and using a simple approach, behaviour could be altered significantly enough to contribute towards a reduction in repeat offending and a consequent decline in the use of public funds. The author believes that a great number of people, too large to even contemplate quantifying, would have a better quality of life, a goal sought by many, and that the police service is well placed to participate constructively in the rehabilitation of offenders who have a 'drink' problem.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1998

Toxicologic evaluation of pepper spray as a possible weapon for the Dutch police force: risk assessment and efficacy.

The efficacy and possible health risks of pepper spray were evaluated. In a number of countries, pepper spray is being used by police forces to aid in arresting aggressive individuals. Pepper spray is commercially available as a canister filled with Capsicum extract, which contains capsaicin as the active component. When applied in the form of a spray, it causes an acute inflammation, and humans involuntarily close their eyes, experience a burning feeling on the skin, and are usually rapidly incapacitated. Use by the U.S. police was successful in subduing aggressive individuals in 90% of cases, and a reduction of injury to both police and arrested individuals was noted. In general, pepper spray appeared to be a relatively safe weapon with small risk of causing acute physical harm. Despite this evidence, a number of fatalities were reported in the United States following the use of pepper spray. However, it was concluded that it was not the pepper spray but rather other factors such as drugs and hog-tying that contributed to the cause of death. In only 1 case, that of an asthmatic man, was it concluded that the use of pepper spray contributed to the cause of death. Much attention has been paid to possible genotoxic effects of Capsicum extract such as mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. It was concluded that the risk of long-term health effects is negligible. Because pepper spray may induce bronchoconstriction, people suffering from chronic obstructive lung disease may be hypersensitive to it. Although the results of one study indicate that asthmatics do not develop additional bronchoconstriction following inhalation of capsaicin, the number of experimental data are too few to draw sound conclusions.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1992

Interfacing with police in the pediatric emergency department.

In summary, ED staff and local police departments should make a concerted effort to work together. The ED director should develop management protocols in conjunction with local police chiefs to plan strategies in advance. It is helpful to provide "orientation sessions," so that each group of professionals knows what to expect of the other. It may also be helpful to arrange tours of the ED so that police know where to go when they are called to the ED. All of these efforts should foster better care of children in the ED and will reduce tensions between the dedicated groups who work with such children.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Occupational stress among senior police officers.

From a survey of over 500 senior UK police officers completing the occupational stress inventory, it was observed that those serving in England and Wales exhibited the highest job stress related to structure and climate, co-worker relationships and their managerial role. There were no inter-regional differences on the individual difference variables, Type A behaviour, locus of control, or on physical health measures. Superintendents in Scotland used coping methods least frequently including domestic/home support, time management and social support, the latter strategy being most used by Northern Ireland officers. Findings relating job stress to job satisfaction were inconsistent with other police populations. Results are discussed in the context of organizational reform in the police service.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2006

Long term health complaints following the Amsterdam Air Disaster in police officers and fire-fighters.

BACKGROUND: On 4 October 1992, a cargo aircraft crashed into apartment buildings in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Fire-fighters and police officers assisted with the rescue work. OBJECTIVES: To examine the long term health complaints in rescue workers exposed to a disaster. METHODS: A historical cohort study was performed among police officers (n = 834) and fire-fighters (n = 334) who performed at least one disaster related task and reference groups of their non-exposed colleagues (n = 634 and n = 194, respectively). The main outcome measures included digestive, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, nervous system, airway, skin, post-traumatic stress, fatigue, and general mental health complaints; haematological and biochemical laboratory values; and urinalysis outcomes. RESULTS: Police officers and fire-fighters who were professionally exposed to a disaster reported more physical and mental health complaints, compared to the reference groups. No clinically relevant statistically significant differences in laboratory outcomes were found. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to examine long term health complaints in a large sample of rescue workers exposed to a disaster in comparison to reference groups of non-exposed colleagues. Findings show that even in the long term, and in the absence of laboratory abnormalities, rescue workers report more health complaints.

Accidents, Aviation↗
PubMed2002

Assuring gender equity in recruitment standards for police officers.

Human Rights Tribunals require application of non-discriminatory fitness standards in the hiring, promotion, and retention of employees. This issue has become controversial for public safety officers such as police, where differences in average levels of absolute fitness between men and women cause a high proportion of female applicants to fail many entrance tests. The present review summarizes the impact on physical working capacity of commonly encountered gender differences in size, body composition, haemoglobin levels, and muscular strength. The principles applied in designing content- and construct-validity occupational fitness tests are described, and Human Rights policies are reviewed in the light of the Meiorin judgment. Criteria are indicated for establishing a bona-fide occupational fitness requirement, and description is given of the approach used in developing standards that satisfy these criteria. Requirements are based on the task to be accomplished. The potential training response of female applicants is likely at least to match that of their male peers, and the needs of female police recruits are thus best accommodated by providing every opportunity to augment fitness to the required minimum level. The main weakness of any current requirement is that most police forces do not yet apply an equivalent criterion to older incumbent officers, where similar issues may arise.

Conflict, Psychological↗
PubMed2002

Impact of community-wide police car deployment of automated external defibrillators on survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

BACKGROUND: Disappointing survival rates from out-of-hospital cardiac arrests encourage strategies for faster defibrillation, such as use of automated external defibrillators (AEDs) by nonconventional responders. METHODS AND RESULTS: AEDs were provided to all Miami-Dade County, Florida, police. AED-equipped police (P-AED) and conventional emergency medical rescue (EMS) responders are simultaneously deployed to possible cardiac arrests. Times from 9-1-1 contact to the scene were compared for P-AED and concurrently deployed EMS, and both were compared with historical EMS experience. Survival with P-AED was compared with outcomes when EMS was the sole responder. Among 420 paired dispatches of P-AED and EMS, the mean+/-SD P-AED time from 9-1-1 call to arrival at the scene was 6.16+/-4.27 minutes, compared with 7.56+/-3.60 minutes for EMS (P<0.001). Police arrived first to 56% of the calls. The time to first responder arrival among P-AED and EMS was 4.88+/-2.88 minutes (P<0.001), compared with a historical response time of 7.64+/-3.66 minutes when EMS was the sole responder. A 17.2% survival rate was observed for victims with ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT/VF), compared with 9.0% for standard EMS before P-AED implementation (P=0.047). However, VT/VF benefit was diluted by the observation that 61% of the initial rhythms were nonshockable, reducing the absolute survival benefit among the total study population to 1.6% (P-AED, 7.6%; EMS, 6.0%). CONCLUSIONS: P-AED establishes a layer of responders that generate improved response times and survival from VT/VF. There was no benefit for victims with nonshockable rhythms.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

A peer-based assistance program for officers with the New York City Police Department: report of the effects of Sept. 11, 2001.

Few data on stress symptoms related to the World Trade Center disaster in law enforcement personnel have been reported. Most New York City Police Department (NYPD) officers had significant exposure to the events of Sept. 11, 2001. Approximately 5,000 officers responded within the first 2 days, and more than 25,000 officers worked at ground zero, the morgues, or the Staten Island landfill. Because the police are the first line of defense against terrorist attacks, it is imperative that they maintain optimal health and functioning. Concern for the long-term effects from traumatic exposure is warranted. In partnership with Project Liberty, peer officers and clinicians from the Police Organization Providing Peer Assistance performed outreach, support work, and screening for stress symptoms related to the disaster in the NYPD from December 2002 until December 2003. Psychological issues in law enforcement personnel, a description of the outreach program, and data from these screenings are presented.

Confidentiality↗
PubMed2000

A survey of police officers' experience with Tarasoff warnings in two states.

A desk sergeant at each of 48 Michigan police stations and 52 South Carolina police stations was surveyed about knowledge and experience of Tarasoff warnings. Respondents at 45 stations reported receiving warnings from mental health professionals, with a mean+/-SD of 3. 7+/-8.4 warnings a year. Only three respondents were familiar with the Tarasoff ruling. Twenty-four stations had a specific policy on such warnings. Twenty-seven stations would not warn a potential victim. Michigan stations were much more likely than South Carolina stations to have experience with or policies on Tarasoff warnings. Because police apparently have limited experience with Tarasoff warnings, calling them may not be the best way to protect potential victims from patients making threats.

Duty to Warn↗