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PubMed2006

Theory of mind, neurocognition, and functional status in schizotypy.

The present study is the first to concurrently examine social cognition, neurocognition, and social functioning in psychometric schizotypes. Screening of 2108 undergraduates with the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire-Brief (SPQ-B) identified 52 persons high in schizotypy and 40 persons low in schizotypy. All participants were administered a test battery designed to assess two elements of neurocognition, verbal secondary memory (California Verbal Learning Test) and executive functioning (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), two elements of social cognition, emotion perception (The Awareness of Social Inference Test-Part 1) and theory of mind (The Awareness of Social Inference Test-Parts 2 and 3), and social functioning (Social Adjustment Scale-Self Report). Although the persons with high schizotypy were impaired in social functioning relative to the persons with low schizotypy, they were not impaired in theory of mind, emotion perception, verbal secondary memory, or executive functioning. Theory of mind and verbal secondary memory were correlated in persons with high schizotypy. The present findings suggest that psychometric schizotypes are not impaired in the domains of social cognition and neurocognition examined.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Theory of mind and moral cognition: exploring the connections.

It is widely recognized that people sometimes use theory-of-mind judgments in moral cognition. A series of recent studies shows that the connection can also work in the opposite direction: moral judgments can sometimes be used in theory-of-mind cognition. Thus, there appear to be cases in which people's moral judgments actually serve as input to the process underlying their application of theory-of-mind concepts.

Cognition↗
PubMed1999

Emotional processing, three modes of mind and the prevention of relapse in depression.

Rachman's (1980) analysis [Rachman, S. (1980). Emotional processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 18, 51-60] of emotional processing is extended and applied to the prevention of relapse and recurrence in depression. It is proposed that effective emotional processing leads to changes in the ability of triggering cues to reactivate depressogenic processing cycles at times of potential relapse. Available evidence supports the usefulness of the probe methodology of the emotional processing framework as a way to investigate processes mediating relapse prevention by cognitive therapy. It is proposed that effective emotional processing involves creation of modified affect-related schematic mental models and that this occurs most effectively only within certain processing configurations or modes of mind. Within the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS) framework, three modes of processing emotional material can be distinguished: 'mindless emoting'; 'conceptualising/doing' and 'mindful experiencing/being'. Only the last of these facilitates emotional processing; the second may prevent effective emotional processing and perpetuate depression by ruminative, conceptually dominated processing. This analysis suggests a further strategy to prevent relapse, in addition to modifying depressogenic schematic models, by teaching recovered depressed patients skills to switch processing modes by intentional redeployment of attention. Results of a recent trial of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy support the effectiveness of this novel alternative strategy.

Affect↗
PubMed2000

Two reasons to abandon the false belief task as a test of theory of mind.

The false belief task has often been used as a test of theory of mind. We present two reasons to abandon this practice. First, passing the false belief task requires abilities other than theory of mind. Second, theory of mind need not entail the ability to reason about false beliefs. We conclude with an alternative conception of the role of the false belief task.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Shape constancy and theory of mind: is there a link?

In three experiments, children aged between 4 and 7 years viewed a circular disc oriented at a slant. The disc was made of luminous material and situated in a darkened chamber. Children of all ages exaggerated the circularity of the disc when they knew that the object was really a circle (the circle task), and the effect was greatest in the younger members of the sample. Crucially, however, a group of children in Experiment 3 who viewed an identical shape that they knew emanated from an actual ellipse did not exaggerate circularity. In the second experiment, children tackled three standard theory of mind tasks in addition to the circle task mentioned above. A significant correlation emerged (even with age partialed) between the extent of exaggeration made by those who knew that the shape was a circle and ability to pass the theory of mind tests. It seems knowledge of reality contaminates judgements of appearance in the circle task. This might be the same bias that features in realist errors in theory of mind tasks.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2003

The relationship between theory of mind and episodic memory: evidence for the development of autonoetic consciousness.

The study investigated a link between theory of mind and episodic memory involving autonoetic consciousness (). Eighty-nine Japanese 4- to 6-year-olds received two versions of a false belief task, a task of aspectuality or knowledge origins, and four memory tests. After controlling for age, most theory of mind abilities showed no interrelations, and own and other's belief understandings in deceptive appearance tasks were solely related to source memory, but not to free recall, temporal ordering, or working memory. Moreover, even when age and verbal intelligence were controlled, the association between representational change and source memory was highly significant in 6-year-olds but not in 4- and 5-year-olds. Results suggest that during development only a particular kind of theory of mind ability is integrated with episodic memory.

Child↗
PubMed2004

Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits. A meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a structured group program that employs mindfulness meditation to alleviate suffering associated with physical, psychosomatic and psychiatric disorders. The program, nonreligious and nonesoteric, is based upon a systematic procedure to develop enhanced awareness of moment-to-moment experience of perceptible mental processes. The approach assumes that greater awareness will provide more veridical perception, reduce negative affect and improve vitality and coping. In the last two decades, a number of research reports appeared that seem to support many of these claims. We performed a comprehensive review and meta-analysis of published and unpublished studies of health-related studies related to MBSR. METHODS: Sixty-four empirical studies were found, but only 20 reports met criteria of acceptable quality or relevance to be included in the meta-analysis. Reports were excluded due to (1) insufficient information about interventions, (2) poor quantitative health evaluation, (3) inadequate statistical analysis, (4) mindfulness not being the central component of intervention, or (5) the setting of intervention or sample composition deviating too widely from the health-related MBSR program. Acceptable studies covered a wide spectrum of clinical populations (e.g., pain, cancer, heart disease, depression, and anxiety), as well as stressed nonclinical groups. Both controlled and observational investigations were included. Standardized measures of physical and mental well-being constituted the dependent variables of the analysis. RESULTS: Overall, both controlled and uncontrolled studies showed similar effect sizes of approximately 0.5 (P<.0001) with homogeneity of distribution. CONCLUSION: Although derived from a relatively small number of studies, these results suggest that MBSR may help a broad range of individuals to cope with their clinical and nonclinical problems.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1984

The time of a conscious sensory experience and mind-brain theories.

Libet et al. and Popper & Eccles have the view that some single hypothesis about the time of a conscious sensory experience has certain consequences for various mind-brain theories. The view involves a fundamental inconsistency, which may cast doubt on experimental findings, and two hypotheses rather than one. The preferable hypothesis is doubtful. The preferable hypothesis has been thought to have mind-brain consequences principally because it has not been distinguished from a different hypothesis. The preferable hypothesis in fact does not have the supposed mind-brain consequences. The different hypothesis, which in fact does have the given consequences, is entirely unacceptable.

Brain↗
PubMed1985

Subjective antedating of a sensory experience and mind-brain theories: reply to Honderich (1984).

Honderich claims that our "delay-and-antedating" hypothesis, of a delay in cerebral production combined with a subjective antedating of a conscious sensory experience, involves self-contradiction which may cast doubt on some of our experimental findings and on the hypothesis. This claim misses the distinction between the phenomenological subjective mental content of an experience and the physical-neuronal configuration that elicits the experience; also, it cannot explain the experimentally observed discrepancy, between subjective timing and the empirically delayed time for cerebral adequacy for eliciting the experience, found when stimulating a subcortical sensory pathway. Honderich usefully distinguishes between our stated (delay-and-antedating) hypothesis and a different though unacceptable one which would have serious implications for mind-brain theories. The delay-and-antedating hypothesis does not provide a formally definitive contradiction of monist-identity theory (of the mind-brain relationship). However, our experimentally based hypothesis does dissociate subjective/mental timing from the actual physical/neuronal time of an experience. This phenomenon, though conceptually strange, must be encompassed by any mind-brain theory.

Brain↗
PubMed2002

Reading the mind from eye gaze.

Baron-Cohen [Mindblindness: an essay on autism and theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997] has suggested that the interpretation of gaze plays an important role in a normal functioning theory of mind (ToM) system. Consistent with this suggestion, functional imaging research has shown that both ToM tasks and eye gaze processing engage a similar region of the posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS). However, a second brain region associated with ToM, the medial prefrontal (MPF) cortex, has not been identified by previous eye gaze studies. We discuss the methodological issues that may account for the absence of MPF activation in these experiments and present a PET study that controls for these factors. Our experiment included three conditions in which the proportions of faces gazing at, and away from, the participant, were as follows: 100% direct [0% averted], 50% direct-50% averted, and 100% horizontally averted [0% direct]. Two control conditions were also included in which the faces' gaze were averted down, or their eyes were closed. Contrasts comparing the gaze conditions with each of the control conditions revealed medial frontal involvement. Parametric analyses showed a significant linear relationship between increasing proportions of horizontally averted gaze and increased rCBF in the MPF cortex. The opposite parametric analysis (increasing proportions of direct gaze) was associated with increased rCBF in a number of areas including the superior and medial temporal gyri. Additional subtraction contrasts largely confirmed these patterns. Our results demonstrate a considerable degree of overlap between the medial frontal areas involved in eye gaze processing and theory of mind tasks.

Arousal↗
PubMed1998

The five mysteries of the mind, and their consequences.

While Western man has recognized for almost 2500 years that mind derives exclusively from brain, clothing this fact with explanatory detail still proves elusive. First, is consciousness per se, created by processes demonstrably limited to certain, but still unspecified, neuronal arrangements and activities. Then there is perception, its ineffable qualia, and the fact that it arises from neuronal activity widely dispersed in space and time within networks of vast complexity. Voluntary control is equally dispersed as to neuronal participation, and nescient as to origin. An often overlooked mystery is the unity of mind and behavior that prevails despite the potential for bihemispheric duplication of processes and experience. Finally, there is memory, which while credibly within grasp of understanding as a synaptic alteration maintained via activation of the nuclear genome, still wholly defies comprehension when viewed as commanded recall of myriad, randomly selectable details of the past, a largely effortless and 'instantaneous' flood of memories. For two centuries science has endeavored to demonstrate how these mysteries proceed from physics and chemistry, as indeed they do; but viewed from this direction alone, mind is but the babbling of a robot, chained ineluctably to crude causality. In a bold and revolutionary stroke, Roger Sperry has conceived a more credible paradigm, that the totality of neuronal action, as a richly intercommunicating system, gives rise to effects transcendent to the individual physicochemical elements that compose it. A major achievement of this position is that it is immediately consonant with everyday human experience and belief. While neither Sperry's vision. nor the reduction of the mysteries to a dance of ions can yet be proven, the vast advantage of Sperry's thesis is that it again imbues human thought and action with responsibility, and opens morality to the light of science, while the long wait for certainty unfolds.

Consciousness↗
PubMed2003

Biological nonlocality and the mind-brain interaction problem: comments on a new empirical approach.

Up to now, we have been faced with an age old fundamental dilemma posed by the mind-brain interaction problem, i.e. how is it that the mind which is subjective and immaterial, can interact with the brain which is objective and material? Analysis of recent experiments appears to indicate that quantum mechanics may have a role to play in the resolution of the mind-brain interaction problem in the form of biological entanglement and nonlocality. In addition to this analysis, when coupled with ongoing and proposed experiments, may help us to simultaneously resolve related issues such as whether mental events can initiate neural events, the transference of conscious subjective experience, the measurement problem and the binding problem.

Brain↗
PubMed2003

The neurochemical hypothesis of 'theory of mind'.

This paper aims to explore the neurochemical basis of the ability to represent one's own or other's mental states such as intentions, beliefs, wants and knowledge, an ability often referred to as 'theory of mind'. Based on neurochemical and psychopharmacological investigations in autism and schizophrenia, pathologies in which this ability is impaired, it is hypothesized that 'theory of mind' abilities are contingent on the integrity of the serotonergic and dopaminergic system. This hypothesis is discussed in light of the system's neurochemical properties and role in cognition. It is suggested that specific abnormalities to this system can account for differences in the profile of 'theory of mind' impairments that may exist among patients belonging to different pathologies.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed2000

Effects of body-mind training and relaxation stretching on persons with chronic toxic encephalopathy.

The purpose of this project was to investigate the psychological and physical effects of training of body awareness and slow stretching on persons with chronic toxic encephalopathy (CTE). In the present study, a method of self-regulation, a body-mind training, is presented. The body-mind training used was a guided relaxation technique combined with meditative stretching. The techniques are introduced and the psychological and physiological effects of the training is presented. Eight subjects with CTE, 48.5 years, were trained for 8 weeks. Outcome measures were percentage alpha brain waves (alpha%), electromyography (EMG) on the frontalis muscle, state-trait anxiety (STAI), creativity (RAT), and mood measured as anxiousness, humour and mental fatigue. The mean alpha% increased 52% during the training period (P < 0.01), and the EMG decreased 31% (P < 0.001. State anxiety decreased 22% during the training period (P < 0.01), but no changes were observed in trait anxiety and in the creativity score. The level of anxiousness and fatigue before a training session decreased during the training period. In conclusion, the body-mind training resulted in an improved ability for physical and mental relaxation as indicated from the lower EMG, the higher alpha% and the decrease in state anxiety.

Alpha Rhythm↗
PubMed2001

Expression of Neisseria gonorrhoeae cell division genes ftsZ, ftsE and minD is influenced by environmental conditions.

The activity of the promoter regions of the cell division genes ftsZ, ftsE, minC, minD and minE from Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Ng) was studied under different environmental conditions using lacZ translational fusions. The promoters of the minNg genes have not been previously determined and we identified promoter regions upstream of each gene (minCp, minDp and minEp). We determined that minDp had the strongest activity. Expression of the promoter regions of ftSZ(Ng) and ftsE(Ng), which we had previously identified, as well as minD(Ng), were then studied under conditions reflecting the environment of the genitourinary tract. These conditions included anaerobiosis, presence of isoleucine or urea (3 mM and 400 mM, respectively) and acidity of pH 6. Both beta-galactosidase expression and northern blot analysis indicated that all three genes were upregulated under anaerobiosis. The addition of isoleucine as well as media at pH 6 did not have any significant effects on the promoter activity of these genes while the presence of urea significantly decreased ftsZ(Ng) promoter activity. The expression of the minD(Ng) promoter region was analyzed during different growth phases and shown to follow the growth behavior of the culture. By contrast, the ftSZ(Ng) promoter activity continued to rise after the onset of the stationary phase. When gonococcal ftsZ promoter 1, (Pz1) was altered by site-directed mutagenesis, a significant decrease in the expression of ftsZ(Ng) was observed under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. These data infer that gonococci regulate their cell division in response to different environments.

ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters↗
PubMed1983

'A plastic power ministering to organisation': interpretations of the mind-body relation in late nineteenth-century British psychiatry.

Late nineteenth-century medico-psychological approaches to the mind-body problem are discussed in relation to psychiatry's theoretical constitution as a distinct 'mind-body' science and practice, and to John Hughlings Jackson's 'doctrine of concomitance'. Psychiatric 'explanations' of the mind-body relation are interpreted as expressions of psychiatry's independent professional interests vis-à-vis neurology and general medicine.

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed2004

Constructing an understanding of mind: the development of children's social understanding within social interaction.

Theories of children's developing understanding of mind tend to emphasize either individualistic processes of theory formation, maturation, or introspection, or the process of enculturation. However, such theories must be able to account for the accumulating evidence of the role of social interaction in the development of social understanding. We propose an alternative account, according to which the development of children's social understanding occurs within triadic interaction involving the child's experience of the world as well as communicative interaction with others about their experience and beliefs (Chapman 1991; 1999). It is through such triadic interaction that children gradually construct knowledge of the world as well as knowledge of other people. We contend that the extent and nature of the social interaction children experience will influence the development of children's social understanding. Increased opportunity to engage in cooperative social interaction and exposure to talk about mental states should facilitate the development of social understanding. We review evidence suggesting that children's understanding of mind develops gradually in the context of social interaction. Therefore, we need a theory of development in this area that accords a fundamental role to social interaction, yet does not assume that children simply adopt socially available knowledge but rather that children construct an understanding of mind within social interaction.

Child↗
PubMed2006

The application of mindfulness-based cognitive interventions in the treatment of co-occurring addictive and mood disorders.

This article reviews the theory, clinical application, and empirical findings on mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) for mental health and addictive disorders. Expanding upon the research demonstrating the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for addiction, this article develops and explores the rationale for combining mindfulness-based interventions with evidence-based CBTs in treating addictive disorders, with an emphasis on substance use disorders with co-occurring mood disorders. This article proposes that deficits in affect--regulation related to the behavioral and emotional effects of neurobiological changes that occur with long-term substance abuse--pose a unique set of challenges in early recovery. Prolonged use of addictive substances impairs the brain pathways that mediate certain affect regulation functions. These functions involve attention and inhibitory control, the saliency of and response to addictive versus natural reward stimuli, and the ability to detach or maintain perspective in response to strong emotional states. In treating this affective dysregulation, which can contribute to the vulnerability to relapse in the early stages of recovery, the affect-regulation-specific focus of MBCT adds a valuable element to augment CBT for addiction. Summarizing magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography findings on the effects of MBCT and the neurobiology of drug addiction, this article outlines directions for further research on potential benefits of MBCT for the recovering individual. Finally, this article describes a structured protocol, developed at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City, which combines CBT with mindfulness-based intervention, for the treatment of affect-regulation issues specific to co-occurring addictive and mood disorders.

Affect↗