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PubMed1992

Clinical effects of pulsed oral irrigation with 0.2% chlorhexidine digluconate in patients with adult periodontitis.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of using 0.2% Chlorhexidine digluconate in an pulsated jet irrigator by patients as part of their daily dental home-care measures. After initial assessment, 16 patients diagnosed as having adult periodontitis received scaling and polishing together with advice on the subgingival use of a pulsated jet oral irrigator with which they were supplied. 8 patients having 293 active sites with probing depths equal to or in excess of 4 mm used 0.2% chlorhexidine digluconate (CHX) in the oral irrigator, 2 x daily for 56 days. The other group of 8 patients with 253 active sites over 4 mm used a placebo as the irrigating solution. A modified dichotomous plaque index (MPI), gingival bleeding index (GBI) and probing pocket depths (PPD) were assessed on days 0, 28 and 56. Within-group comparisons showed that the CHX regime reduced MPI, GBI and PPD significantly but that the placebo group (PG) only achieved a significant reduction in the PPD. Between-group comparisons showed that the use of 0.2% CHX as an irrigant was significantly more effective than the placebo solution at reducing all the clinical parameters studied. The patients found the oral irrigator easy and pleasant to use, although all the CHX group developed staining to a varying extent. This double blind study demonstrated that 0.2% CHX used 2 x daily in an oral irrigator was effective at reducing plaque deposition, periodontal inflammation and probing pocket depths. The effects of using lower concentrations of chlorhexidine digluconate in this regime need to be investigated.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Citric acid (solution R) irrigation in the treatment of refractory infection (struvite) stone disease: is it useful?

OBJECTIVE: Citric acid, in varying concentrations, has been used in the dissolution treatment of struvite renal calculi. Solution R (Uro-trainer), which contains 6% citric acid, is a solution licensed for use in the management of struvite stone disease in the UK. We report our experience. METHODS: 23 kidneys in 22 patients (10 male and 12 female patients, mean age 45, range 15-60 years) underwent solution R irrigation following debulking of the stone with percutaneous nephrolithotomy (n = 20), ureteroscopy and shock wave lithotripsy (n = 2) combined with open procedures (n = 4) between 1994 and 1998. The original stone configuration consisted of 14 staghorn, 4 partial staghorn and 5 large burden stones. Irrigation was performed through a nephrostomy tube (n = 20) or in a retrograde fashion (n = 3) using a closed infusion pump system (40 ml/h). The response to treatment was checked using a nephrostogram and/or plain X-ray. RESULTS: In 6 (26%) kidneys, after an average duration of 2 (1-5) days, irrigation had to be abandoned due to loin pain, leak or sepsis. The average duration of irrigation was 6.4 (1-20) days. At the end of irrigation, a total of 4 (17.4%) kidneys had complete radiographic clearance, while the stone was reduced to calyceal dust in 3 (13%). Partial response was seen in 11 (47.8%) and no response in 5 (21.8%) kidneys. Following additional alternative intervention(s) in 6 (26%) kidneys (4 with partial and 2 with no response) further clearance was achieved in 3 (13%) and calyceal dust status in 3 (13%). The response was better if the stone was reduced to less than 10mm prior to irrigation. At the mean follow-up of 2.44 (1-4) years, of 13 kidneys with stone clearance or calyceal dust, 9 suffered recurrence or re-growth, 5 of which required further interventions. Only 4 (17.4%) of 23 kidneys remained stone free. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with complex stone disease, adjuvant solution R irrigation can reduce the stone burden. There is a considerable potential for side effects necessitating close monitoring for sepsis and electrolyte abnormalities. However, the overall success rate for solution R is limited.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Effect of irrigating fluid on perioperative temperature regulation during transurethral prostatectomy.

Hypothermia in the immediate postoperative period is associated with postoperative instability, prolonged recovery and increased risk of myocardial ischemia in the subsequent 24 h. This study examined the effect of irrigating-fluid temperature during transurethral resection of the prostate on perioperative temperature regulation. A randomized prospective study was conducted on twenty-eight consecutive patients undergoing transurethral resections of the prostate. The control group received room-temperature irrigant. The study group received irrigant warmed through the Abbott level-one fluid warmer or in the Ohio Servocare incubator. Fluid temperatures were 17 degrees C for unwarmed fluid, 37 degrees C for level-one fluid, and 35 degrees C for incubator fluid. The incidence of hypothermia (< or = 36 degrees C) in the immediate postoperative period was 95% in the cold-irrigant group and 38% in the warm-irrigant group (p = 0.001). The decrease from pre- to postoperative temperature was greater with cold (0.95 +/- 0.47 degrees C) than with warm (0.42 +/- 0.64 degrees C) irrigant (p = 0.01). The type of anesthesia (spinal versus general) and method of fluid warming (incubator versus level-one) did not have a significant effect on the perioperative temperature drop. Regression analysis demonstrated that the time of resection, amount of prostate resected, volume of irrigant fluid, and volume of intravenous fluid administered were not independent predictors of intraoperative temperature change.

Aged↗
PubMed2001

Combination of a brief irrigation with tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) and adenovirus-mediated local TFPI gene transfer additively reduces neointima formation in balloon-injured rabbit carotid arteries.

BACKGROUND: Tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) is a physiological antagonist of TF. We tested whether a brief irrigation with TFPI protein (rTFPI) or TFPI gene transfer into injured arteries would suppress TF activity and reduce fibroproliferative changes and investigated whether a combination of these methods would show an additive effect. METHODS AND RESULTS: We prepared adenoviruses expressing either TFPI (AdTFPI) or bacterial ss-galactosidase (AdLacZ). Rabbit carotid arteries were balloon-injured and either infected with AdTFPI (or AdLacZ) or irrigated briefly with rTFPI (or saline). After injury, TF activity in arteries increased and was sustained; however, it was suppressed during the initial 24 hours by rTFPI irrigation (but not by gene transfer) and for a substantial period of time by TFPI gene transfer (but not by rTFPI irrigation). Four weeks later, the ratio of the intimal to medial areas was 34.3+/-8.7% (mean+/-SD, n=14) in saline-treated arteries and 33.3+/-4.2% in AdLacZ-infected arteries (P:=NS versus saline). However, it was reduced to 25.5+/-8.5% in rTFPI-irrigated arteries (P:<0.01 versus saline) and to 20.7+/-5.3% in AdTFPI-infected arteries (P:<0.01 versus AdLacZ). With a combination of irrigation and gene transfer, the ratio was further reduced to 12.6+/-4.7% (P:<0.01 versus rTFPI, P:<0.05 versus AdTFPI). Systemic coagulation status was not affected in these animals. CONCLUSIONS: A combination of rTFPI irrigation and TFPI gene transfer overcomes the shortcomings shown by each method when used alone and achieves a full coverage of TF activity suppression, thereby enhancing their therapeutic effects without systemic side effects. This combination may be an effective strategy for the prevention of thrombosis and proliferative changes after angioplasty in humans.

Adenoviridae↗
PubMed2003

In vitro evaluation of the effects of the interaction between irrigating solutions, intracanal medication and Er:YAG laser in dentin permeability of the endodontic system.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate in vitro the effects of different associations between irrigating solutions (EDTA-T and citric acid), intracanal medicament (NDP), and Er:YAG laser irradiation on dentin permeability. Fifty-one extracted single-rooted teeth were instrumented and divided into seven groups. Groups GI and GII had final irrigation with a demineralizing solution only (EDTA-T and citric acid, respectively). Groups GIII and GIV had final irrigation with EDTA-T and citric acid, respectively, plus an association of irrigating solution and Er:YAG laser. Groups GV and GVI had final irrigation with EDTA-T and citric acid, respectively, plus an association of intracanal medication and Er:YAG laser. Group GVII (control group) had final irrigation with distilled water. All root canals were filled with NDP associated with rhodamine B dye. After the experimental period, the samples were transversely cut into six 2.0 mm thick slices for subsequent reading using the ImageLab software. Analysis of the results allowed us to conclude that there were statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) between the groups as to the penetration of the dye-intracanal medication solution. Groups III and IV presented smaller values of dentinal permeability when compared to the other groups. The best results were obtained with the interaction between a demineralizing irrigating solution and the association of intracanal medicament and laser Er:YAG (groups V and VI). In these groups the observed penetration of the intracanal medicament plus dye solution in the apical third was, on average, 29% greater than in the other groups.

Chelating Agents↗
PubMed1985

Changes of subgingival total colony forming units and black pigmented bacteroides after a single irrigation of periodontal pockets with 1.64% SnF2.

Periodontal pockets of 11 subjects were irrigated once with either 1.64% SnF2 or saline applied by syringe. Changes on the total anaerobic colony forming units (CFU) and black pigmented bacteroides (BPBs) of the irrigated pockets were assessed for 31 days. The results showed little change of the CFUs by either single application of SnF2 or saline. However, SnF2 irrigation produced a decrease in the BPBs for 1 week with the greatest effect (1/2 log reduction) being seen at 3 days after the irrigation. Some subjects had more impressive reductions in BPBs, yet four of the 11 subjects showed no reductions in BPBs in those sites irrigated with SnF2. Further studies with frequent irrigation intervals are necessary to evaluate the potential usefulness of SnF2 for subgingival irrigation.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

DNA probe analyses of the survival of selected periodontal pathogens following scaling, root planing, and intra-pocket irrigation.

This clinical study evaluated the survival rates of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Prevotella intermedia in periodontal pockets following scaling and root planing and intra-pocket irrigation with antimicrobial agents in patients with moderate and severe periodontitis. The number of target organisms was determined utilizing DNA probes. Adult periodontitis patients were selected on the basis that the subgingival flora contained at least one of the target organisms. Forty-eight (48) inflamed pockets > or = 5 mm in depth with probing attachment loss and containing at least one of the target species were then selected in 7 adult patients who harbored these bacteria. Following baseline clinical and bacterial examination, all patients received thorough scaling and root planing. In addition, 1 or 2 teeth in each patient which harbored the target flora at baseline were randomly assigned to each of the following 4 treatment modalities: 1) control group, no irrigation; 2) saline group, irrigation with 2 cc of physiologic saline; 3) tetracycline group, irrigation with 2 cc of aqueous tetracycline hydrochloride, 50 mg/ml (5%); and 4) chlorhexidine group, irrigation with 2 cc 0.12% chlorhexidine. All selected sites (5 to 8 per patient) were nonadjacent teeth. Clinical parameters and microbial analysis were recorded again at one week, and one month post-irrigation. The survival rate of the target microorganisms was determined and the effect of irrigation with antimicrobial agents on this microflora was compared with the control groups (1 and 2).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Comparison of soap and antibiotic solutions for irrigation of lower-limb open fracture wounds. A prospective, randomized study.

BACKGROUND: Irrigation of open fracture wounds is a commonly performed procedure, and irrigation additives have been used in an attempt to reduce the risk of infection. In vitro and animal studies have suggested that irrigation with detergent solution is more effective than irrigation with a solution containing antibiotic additives. This study was performed to compare the efficacy of those two solutions in the treatment of open fractures in humans. METHODS: Adult patients with an open fracture of the lower extremity were prospectively randomized to receive irrigation with either a bacitracin solution or a nonsterile castile soap solution. The patients were followed clinically to assess for the development of infection, healing of the soft-tissue wound, and union of the fracture. RESULTS: Between 1995 and 2002, 400 patients with a total of 458 open fractures of the lower extremity were entered into the study. One hundred and ninety-two patients were assigned to the bacitracin group (B), and 208 were assigned to the castile soap group (C). Outcomes were available for 171 patients with a total of 199 fractures in group B and 180 patients with a total of 199 fractures in group C. The mean duration of follow-up was 500 days. There was no difference between groups B and C in terms of gender, the Gustilo-Anderson grade of the open fracture, the time between the injury and the irrigation, smoking, or alcohol use. There were significant differences in the mean age (thirty-eight compared with forty-two years, p = 0.01), duration of follow-up (560 compared with 444 days, p = 0.01), prevalence of hypotension (23% compared with 14%, p = 0.04), and duration of treatment with intravenous antibiotics (eleven compared with nine days, p = 0.02). An infection developed at thirty-five (18%) of the 199 fracture sites in group B and at twenty-six (13%) of the 199 fracture sites in group C. This difference was not significant (p = 0.2). Bone-healing was delayed for forty-nine (25%) of the 199 group-B fractures and forty-six (23%) of the 199 group-C fractures (p = 0.72). Wound-healing problems occurred in association with nineteen group-B fractures (9.5%) and eight group-C fractures (4%). This difference was significant (p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Irrigation of open fracture wounds with antibiotic solution offers no advantages over the use of a nonsterile soap solution, and it may increase the risk of wound-healing problems.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Experimental whole gut irrigation in the rat.

An animal model of whole gut irrigation (WGI) in the rat was developed to study the effects of the irrigation procedure on the gastrointestinal microflora. Irrigation was performed with as well as without neomycin (1,000 mg/l) in the irrigation fluid. At the end of the irrigation procedure the animals were intragastrically contaminated with 2 neomycin-resistant Enterobacteriaceae strains (i.e. an Escherichia coli and a Klebsiella pneumoniae) to study the intestinal colonization by these strains. Although both contaminating strains persisted longer in the animals treated with irrigation fluid with neomycin than in those treated with mere irrigation fluid, persistence was only significantly longer with the E. coli strain (p less than 0.025). It seems likely that the condition of the--mainly anaerobic--mucosa-associated microflora after WGI was responsible for this difference in duration of colonization by the contaminating E. coli strain.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Caloric irrigators: air, open-loop water and closed-loop water.

Selective stimulation of the semicircular canal system of one ear by establishing a temperature gradient is still widely used in the clinic in the caloric test. The results obtained are noted for their imprecision and variability. This is, in part, due to a lack of uniformly applied standardized test protocols, as well as difficulties in applying a precise stimulus. The relative merit of the three types of irrigation are reviewed. Whilst some authors argue that both the closed-loop and air irrigators produce even more variability of response than open water systems, the present author believes that intratest replication studies indicate that the closed-loop irrigation stimulus is the least variable and best tolerated by the patient. In perhaps one-fifth of patients, response to the first irrigation is much stronger than subsequent stimulus applications. It is suggested that there may therefore be a case for routinely performing five irrigations in the bithermal caloric test, including a replication of the first irrigation. It is assumed that psychological factors, especially anxiety, may explain the phenomenon of enhanced initial response, and some of the variability of caloric test responses in general. Use of the closed-loop irrigator is advocated for ease of use, reduced routine maintenance and to minimize patient distress, thereby reducing anxiety and result variability.

Air↗
PubMed1999

Stoma management in a tropical country: colostomy irrigation versus natural evacuation.

People with ostomies in Singapore were initially resistant to colostomy irrigation. This study, a prospective crossover study of 26 patients who underwent abdominoperineal resection, compared colostomy irrigation with the natural evacuation method. During the colostomy-irrigation phase of the study, all 26 patients reported an improvement in continence and fewer problems with sleep, sex, and skin complications compared to the natural-evacuation phase. The study also found a reduction in monthly expenses with colostomy irrigation compared to natural evacuation. Patient satisfaction scores were also superior during the colostomy-irrigation phase. This difference in satisfaction scores was less marked in those who were more than 1-year postsurgery than in those who were less than 1-year postsurgery. The difference in satisfaction between colostomy irrigation and natural evacuation scores was statistically significant in the group that was less than 1-year postsurgery, but not in the group that was more than 1-year postsurgery. The study concluded that colostomy irrigation after abdominoperineal resection is superior to natural evacuation in terms of cost and patient satisfaction and should be introduced soon after surgery.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

[Whole gut irrigation in pediatric patients: a comparative study].

The observation of hydroelectric and pH changes, as well as the diminishing incidence of postoperative infections in pediatric patients, subjected to digestive irrigation (D.I.) before surgery, was the reason for carrying out this paper, fundamentally directed at two objectives: Firstly, to determine the hydro-ionic and clinical repercussions by means of a comparative study of the two most used irrigations solutions and secondly, to analyze the modifications that the D.I., itself and with the addition of antibiotics, is capable of producing on the fecal flora and the intestinal mucous membrane. To realize our aim, a prospective and double blinded study was designed on 124 patients irrigated with a saline solution (S-I), or with the Golytely solution (S-II). The analysis of the results showed that exist a marked predisposition to metabolic acidosis and dehydration after irrigation with S-II, compared with a tendency towards hyperhydration and alkalosis after irrigation with S-I. The effect of flushing with D.I. is capable of producing a significant lowering in the number of germs/ml found in the contents of the colon; a reduction which increases for the anaerobic group (p less than 0.001), when the antibiotics are added to the irrigation solution. Neither of the studied cases gave evidence of histomorphologic alterations in the colonic mucosa after irrigation with erythromycin and neomycin base.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Irrigation of treated wastewater in Braunschweig, Germany: an option to remove pharmaceuticals and musk fragrances.

In this study the fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products which are irrigated on arable land with treated municipal wastewater was investigated. In Braunschweig, Germany, wastewater has been irrigated continuously for more than 45 years. In the winter time only the effluent of the sewage treatment plant (STP) of Braunschweig is used for irrigation, while during summer digested sludge is mixed with the effluent. In the present case study six wells and four lysimeters located in one of the irrigated agricultural fields were monitored with regard to the occurrence of 52 pharmaceuticals and two personal care products (PPCPs; e.g. betablockers, antibiotics, antiphlogistics, carbamazepine, musk fragrances, iodinated contrast media (ICM) and estrogens). No differences in PPCP pollution of the groundwater were found due to irrigation of STP effluents with and without addition of digested sludge, because many polar compounds do not sorb to sludge and lipophilic compounds are not mobile in the soil-aquifer. Most of the selected PPCPs were never detected in any of the lysimeter or groundwater samples, although they were present in the treated wastewater irrigated onto the fields. In the groundwater and lysimeter samples primarily the ICM diatrizoate and iopamidol, the antiepileptic carbamazepine and the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole were detected up to several mugl(-1), while the acidic pharmaceuticals, musk fragrances, estrogens and betablockers were likely sorbed or transformed while passing the top soil layer. Potential estrogenic effects are likely to disappear after irrigation, since the most potent steroid estrogens were not measurable.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2006

Dynamics of arsenic in agricultural soils irrigated with arsenic contaminated groundwater in Bangladesh.

Arsenic (As) concentrations in the soil layers of 12 rice fields located in four As affected areas and two unaffected areas in Bangladesh were monitored during 2003. In the unaffected areas, where irrigation water contained little As (<1 microg/L), As concentrations of rice field soils ranged from 1.5 to 3.0 mg/kg and did not vary significantly with either depth or sampling time throughout the irrigation period. In the As affected areas where the irrigation water contained elevated As (79 to 436 microg/L), As concentrations of rice field soils were much higher compared to those in the unaffected areas and varied significantly with both depth and sampling time. For the top 0 to 150 mm of the soil, the As concentration increased significantly at the end of the irrigation season (May-June 2003). About 71% of the As that is applied to the rice field with irrigation water accumulates in the top 0 to 75 mm soil layer by the end of the irrigation season. After the wet season during which the rice fields were inundated with flood/rain water, the As concentrations in the soil layer decreased significantly and were reduced to levels comparable to those found in soil samples collected at the beginning of the irrigation period. The long-term As accumulation in agricultural soil appears to be counteracted by biogeochemical pathways leading to As removal from soil.

Agriculture↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Irrigated crop production is associated with less malaria than traditional agricultural practices in Tanzania.

There is concern that crop irrigation that results in increased numbers of vector mosquitoes will lead to a rise in malaria in local communities. We evaluated the level of malaria experienced in 3 communities in northern Tanzania with different agricultural practices: rice irrigation, sugar-cane irrigation and traditional maize cultivation. Five cross-sectional surveys were used to measure the prevalence of infection with falciparum malaria in 1-4 years old children in each community over a period of 12 months. Active case detection was also carried out to record clinical episodes of malaria during the study period. Information on antimalarial measures was also recorded. Results from the cross-sectional surveys showed that the overall prevalence of malaria parasites was less near the rice irrigation (12.5%) and sugar-cane (16.9%) schemes than the savannah village (29.4%). There were also significantly fewer clinical episodes of malaria in the rice village (15 cases/1000 child-weeks at risk [cwar]) than either the sugar-cane (36 cases/1000 cwar) or savannah (40 cases/1000 cwar) villages. Overall, rice irrigation was associated with less malaria than alternative agricultural practices, despite the considerable numbers of vectors produced in the paddies. This finding supports other studies that indicate that irrigation in much of sub-Saharan Africa will not lead to increased malaria. Nonetheless, African governments planning irrigation projects need effective policies to encourage local communities to use personal protection measures, such as insecticide-treated bednets, and to ensure that these communities have access to effective antimalarial drugs and efficient health services.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Transfer of 137Cs and 60Co from irrigation water to a soil-tomato plant system.

An experiment has been performed at the nuclear power plant of Garigliano (Caserta, Italy), aiming at the measurement of transfer factors of 137Cs and 60Co radionuclides from the irrigation water to a soil-plant system, with particular attention to the influence on such transfers of the irrigation technique (ground or aerial). Tomato plants were irrigated weekly with water contaminated with 137Cs and 60Co (about 375 Bq/m2 week), using both irrigation techniques. After 13 weeks, fruits, leaves, stems, roots and soil were sampled, and radionuclide concentrations were measured by high-resolution gamma spectroscopy. It was found that the activity allocated to the plant organs is significantly dependent upon the irrigation technique, amounting to 2.1% and 1.6% of the activity given in the cultivation for aerial treatment and 0.4% and 0.3% for the ground treatment, for 137Cs and 60Co respectively. The activity absorbed by plants is allocated mainly in leaves (> 55%), while less then 10% is stored in the fruits, for both irrigation techniques. Transfer factors (soil-plant and irrigation water-plant) of tomato plants and of weeds have been determined for 137Cs and 60Co, as well as for natural 40K in the soil.

Adsorption↗
PubMed1996

Reduction of Thermal Spread and Tissue Adherence with an Irrigating Bipolar Grasper

Bipolar energy heats tissues and leads to thermal spread beyond the target tissues. As temperatures rise above 70&deg; C, tissues stick to the metal jaws of the graspers. The use of irrigating fluid while applying the energy should reduce these effects by cooling the surrounding tissues, and also permit the surgeon to clear the operative field of blood. An in vivo animal study was performed to measure these effects. Energy was applied to porcine uterine horn with and without irrigation with a new irrigating bipolar grasper. Lateral thermal spread and tissue adherence were measured. Tissue was excised and thermal spread measured grossly and microscopically. Results are shown in the table. Without irrigation, thermal spread stops at 10 seconds due to complete desiccation of the tissues. Lateral thermal spread is reduced below 10 seconds with irrigation, but it continues to rise as energy is applied. Coagulated tissues adhered to the grasper jaws in all of the nonirrigated tests. Cooling the jaws with irrigation eliminated this. The ability to irrigate through the bipolar grasper improves the surgeon's efficiency by reducing tissue sticking, and adds control by reducing thermal spread during normal application of energy.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

Treatment of landfill leachate by irrigation and interaction with landfill gas.

The treatment efficiency of landfill leachate irrigation and the effect of landfill gas addition were investigated in a vegetated compost/gravel substrate by monitoring soil moisture content, drainage water volume and quality in a two years lysimeter experiment. Landfill leachate irrigation exceeding 350 mm increased soil moisture and drainage volumes owing to the deterioration of the vegetation resulting from high sodium chloride inputs. Even so sodium chloride was lost in between the irrigation periods, the total reduction of the landfill leachate volume by irrigation decreased from 71% in the first year to 38% in the second year. Landfill gas addition also increased drainage volumes, but was less pronounced. Twenty-two percent of magnesium was retained under landfill leachate irrigation, while decreasing pH values, redox potential and high initial concentrations in the substrate released calcium, iron and potassium. Ninety-eight percent of ammonium was removed by irrigation, but 44% of the applied ammonium was leached as nitrate after oxidation took place due to a decreased uptake after the vegetation deteriorated. Landfill gas fumigation influenced landfill leachate treatment by decreasing the redox potential and the pH and increasing the drainage water content, which improved the retention of total nitrogen and sulfate, but increased the release of iron, calcium and magnesium. To conclude, landfill leachate irrigation is a valuable treatment option to minimize leachate quantities and remove ammonium independent from the presence of landfill gas if salt accumulation is avoided.

Drainage, Sanitary↗