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PubMed2004

Exposure assessment in epidemiologic studies of adverse pregnancy outcomes and disinfection byproducts.

A major challenge in studies that examine the association between disinfection byproducts in drinking water and pregnancy outcomes is the accurate representation of a subject's exposure. We used household water samples and questionnaire information on water-use behavior to examine several aspects of exposure assessment: (i) the distribution and correlation of specific disinfection byproducts, (ii) spatial distribution system and temporal variation in byproduct levels, and (iii) the contribution of individual water-use behavior. The level of specific trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) was determined for 360 household water samples in Eastern Ontario and Nova Scotia. Subjects were interviewed regarding tap water ingestion and showering and bathing practices. In both provinces, total THMs correlated highly with chloroform (correlation coefficient (r) >0.95) and less so with total HAAs (r = 0.74 in Nova Scotia and r = 0.52 in Ontario). The correlation between total THMs and bromodichloromethane was high in Nova Scotia (r = 0.63), but low in Ontario (r = 0.26). The correlation was between THM level in individual household samples, and the mean THM level during the same time period from several distribution system samples was 0.63, while a higher correlation in THM level was observed for samples taken at the same location 1 year apart (r = 0.87). A correlation of 0.73 was found between household THM level and a total exposure measure incorporating ingestion, showering, and bathing behaviors. These results point to the importance of: measurement of different classes of byproducts; household rather than distribution system sampling; and, incorporation of subject behaviors in exposure assessment in epidemiologic studies of disinfection byproducts and adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Acetates↗
PubMed1993

Factors associated with elevated 222Rn levels in Iowa.

The University of Iowa, in conjunction with the Environmental Protection Agency's State Radon Survey Assistance Program, performed a 222Rn screening survey of 582 rural households in the winter of 1989. The distribution of maximum indoor 222Rn concentrations throughout Iowa as well as the relationship between 222Rn screening measurements, detector placement, and housing characteristics are summarized. This report is unique in that site-specific home construction characteristics were collected in the field from participants prior to 222Rn monitoring. The findings of the survey indicate that the significance of a particular housing characteristic on a 222Rn screening measurement is dependent on the placement of the radon detector.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMed2002

Priorities in information desire about unknown risks.

Research on risk perception aims to explain how people perceive risks in order to better communicate about them. Most of this research has tended to view people as passive risk perceivers. However, if confronted with an unknown risk, people can also actively seek information. The main purpose of this study was to investigate what kind of risk information people desire when confronted with an unknown risk and how this desire for information relates to the main dimensions underlying risk perception. Nine focus-group interviews were conducted. The main results of the focus groups were backed up by a paper-and-pencil questionnaire that was distributed among a random sample of 500 households in the Netherlands. Overall, people desire information with which they can determine the personal relevance of the risk confronting them. This pattern is similar to appraisal steps described by health behavior models. The focus-group results provide a dynamic picture of the way risk aspects might interact to create a final risk judgment.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Variables relating to the allocation of pocket money to children: parental reasons and values.

This study was concerned with relations among parents' beliefs, values and practices in regard to the allocation of pocket money to their children. Mothers and fathers in 133 Adelaide families provided information about the pocket money allowance they gave to each child in their family and they completed items designed to measure the importance of various possible reasons for their allocations (family concern, independence training, child's needs), as well as items that assessed value dimensions (work ethic, social welfare, compassion). Results showed that social welfare values were associated with family concern reasons, and that individualistic work ethic values were associated with independence training reasons but were antagonistic to reasons concerned with meeting the child's needs. The amount of pocket money provided was positively related to both the age of the child and to the importance of family concern reasons. Parents saw independence training and meeting the child's needs as more important reasons for older children and mothers emphasized children's needs more than fathers. These results were discussed in relation to other research on distributive justice, allocation decisions, pocket money and household tasks.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Epidemiologic study of the residents of the southeastern area of the Municipality of La Spieza].

We carried out an epidemiologic study to assess the effect on human health of living in an area (Zona D) of La Spezia Municipality (Liguria Region, Italy). Zona D is characterized by the presence of factories, industrial plants, shipyards, a coal-fired power-station, a heavily trafficked thoroughfare and urban waste disposal sites. 230 households for target and control populations were randomly selected from Demographic Department files and surveyed by means of a structured questionnaire administrated by trained interviewers in order to obtain information on adverse health outcome prevalence in 1997 (subjective symptoms and other self-reported conditions) and incidence during 1980-1997 (self-reported diseases diagnosed by general practitioners). In addition, residential, housing, household, and individual characteristics were also gathered. Non-responding households totalled nearly 45%, but were homogeneously distributed by area. After adjustment for several confounders, people living in Zona D showed an increased relative risk (RR) of skin and mucous membrane symptoms (RR = 1.25, 95% CI = 1.02-1.53) attributable to airborne pollutants produced by an incinerator located within a disposal site. A rising RR was also observed for anaemia occurrence in both cross-sectional (RR = 2.44, 95% CI = 1.08-5.48) and longitudinal (RR = 3.21, 95% CI = 1.52-6.72) settings. These last results are consistent with the presence of lead ground pollution due to a heavy metal processing plant located in the same area. Analysis of adverse reproductive effects and cause-specific incidence and mortality revealed no remarkable differences between the study groups.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

[Prevention of cardiovascular diseases is effective. Initial program evaluation of the canton Tessin (1984-1989)].

This study measures and evaluates the effects of the CVD prevention programme which has been underway in the Canton of Tessin (Switzerland) since 1984. The programme was designed with the following objectives: --high blood pressure: each Tessin inhabitant should be aware of the admissible blood pressure limits, the consequences of surpassing the norm, as well as know his or her own blood pressure count and have it measured at least once a year; --tobacco consumption: a positive image of non-smokers is promoted, as well as the respect of non-smoker's rights. The population, particularly the young, are "invited" not to smoke; eating habits: each Tessin inhabitant will be provided with the information necessary to enable him/her to make rational choices concerning content in order to ensure a balanced diet, rich in fibres and low in saturated fats; activity: physical activity, at least 20 minutes three times a week, is promoted for all age groups; early warning symptoms:information will be provided to enable inhabitants to recognize indications of cardiac distress in order to diminish the time between the first pain and hospitalisation; A vast and varied information campaign was set up to pursue these objectives. Much of the campaign was implemented through use of various media (television, radio, daily and weekly press), and seconded with the periodic distribution of information tracts to all the households of the district. The mass media campaign was complemented with a variety of activities for all ages: from poster competitions, to the edition and sale of recipe books, to specific activities with professional and voluntary associations are a few examples.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Cardiovascular Diseases↗
PubMed2005

A rapid method to assess the coverage of the mass drug administration of diethylcarbamazine in the program to eliminate lymphatic filariasis in India.

A rapid method to assess the coverage of mass drug administration (MDA) in the program to eliminate lymphatic filariasis needs to be developed for monitoring and evaluation of the program. This study attempted to develop and test a method of rapid assessment of coverage by using the existing resources of the program. This is based on the data obtained from the randomly selected health workers and drug distributors involved in the drug distribution process and the data of a household coverage survey of the program. The MDA coverage rate obtained through the evaluation survey was highly correlated with the rates obtained from health workers and drug distributors as a rapid assessment. Thus, MDA coverages assessed through health workers and drug distributors can give a good coverage estimate. The involvement of the existing human resources of the program in this rapid method of assessing MDA coverage was cost-effective.

Cluster Analysis↗
PubMed2006

Practice of using human excreta as fertilizer and implications for health in Nghean Province, Vietnam.

The ancient practice of applying latrine wastes to agricultural land has maintained soil fertility in Vietnam for several centuries but may be associated with health risks if the wastes are inadequately treated before usage. This study aimed at investigating the perceptions and handling practices using latrine wastes as fertilizers in a community in central Vietnam. Information was collected through structured questionnaire interviews administered to 75 farming households, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. The majority (64%) of households had a single vault latrine, a possession that was associated with low income (chi2= 12.45; p < 0.05). Most households (85%) used latrine waste in agriculture that was composted before usage (98%). Households often mixed the composted excreta with kitchen ashes and powdered lime likely to increase pH and pathogen die-off. About 28% of households that were applying latrine waste as fertilizer composted three to six months, and only 11 (18%) households composted human excreta for more than the recommended six months. Households with double vault latrines were 7.8 (chi2= 9.4; p<0.05) times more likely to compost human excreta more than six months as compared with households having single vault latrine. Most farmers distributed the latrine wastes with bare hands (66%) because of convenience during application. Respondents with a high educational level used protective gloves more often when distributing latrine wastes in the fields compared to respondents with a low educational level (chi2 = 7.6; p<0.05). If any negative health impacts of latrine waste use in agriculture are to be reduced, then it is suggested that sustainable interventions should take into consideration farmers current excreta-use practices.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Dietary survey methods. 1. A semi-weighted technique for measuring dietary intake within families.

Family diet studies which measure total family consumption can determine only the average nutrient intake. A method has been devised to measure all family members' individual diets concurrently in order to learn how food and nutrient intake is distributed within the family. In this semi-weighed method, the total quantity of food available for consumption by the family is weighted at time of preparation or serving, and the distribution between family members is recorded in household measures. The method is described in detail. It provides data on individual consumption with an accuracy approaching that of a weighed survey. A co-operation rate of 73 per cent in a random sample of 74 households with two adults and two or three children indicates that this semi-weighed method can be used to assess family diets in a broad cross-section of socio-economic backgounds.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

[Santa Fe triatomine bug detector. A high sensitivity and low cost design].

In 1987, Wisnivesky et al. developed "Maria" sensor box (MSB) which was assayed by sanitary agents, during a surveillance phase. In 1987, this design, with the same strategy, was assayed in an area of Santa Fe Province where very good results were obtained. Due to the deterioration of the Primary Health Care system, Santa Fe's Control Programme has carried out a study with MSB used by the owners of the houses. Some difficulties related with the internal structure of MSB were detected. A new model named "Detector SANTA FE" (DSF) was designed in order to overcome these difficulties. The sensitivity and cost of both models were compared in this study. Evaluation of 63 households was carried out with 172 elements distributed in bedrooms, in Villa Minetti (9 de Julio Department). One MSB and one DSF were placed on the walls above the bed-heads, separated by 30 cm, 1.5 m from the floor. Results show that 22 houses were positive after the evaluations. Of those 22 positives, 7 were detected by both models simultaneously, 1 only by MSB and 14 by DSF alone. Sensitivity for MSB was 36% and for DSF was 95%. Regarding efficiency, MSB costs $3.00 per unit, while DSF costs $1.00 per unit. The conclusion of the study is that DSF is remarkably more sensitive and cheaper than MSB.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

The economics of death? A descriptive study of the impact of funeral and cremation costs on U.S. households.

The death-care industry in the United States has been virtually ignored by policy makers. Although the industry is highly fragmented, pricing is becoming increasingly influenced by multinational corporations. This fact coupled with the market structure for services, consumers' preferences, and the attributes of death-care services, has resulted in average funeral cost of over $5,000 per deceased. This figure is over 25 percent higher than the average annual family welfare payment in the United States. As estimated in this paper, the distributional effects of a death occurring within a household varies significantly by income as well as race and ethnicity. The author concludes that Americans should engage more openly in the discussion of death, increase their rate of prearrangements, and seek alternatives to the traditional funeral.

Costs and Cost Analysis↗
PubMed1992

The effects of migration and remittances on inequality in rural Pakistan.

The author presents "a framework for analysing the impact of internal and international remittances on rural income distribution. This framework uses predicted income equations to predict (estimate) the incomes of households in two situations: excluding and including remittances. The results are then used to evaluate the changes in income distribution that occur when internal and international remittances are excluded, compared to when they are included.... Data come from a three-year study (1986-87 to 1988-89) of 727 households in three provinces in rural Pakistan." A comment by Zafar Mahmood is included (pp. 1,204-6).

Asia↗
PubMed1990

[Preliminary study on leprosy subclinical infection and its sero-epidemiology].

The detection of subclinical infection with M. leprae among 360 household contacts of leprosy and 95 healthy controls was conducted with PGI-ELISA in leprosy-endemic areas. The relationship of age at infection, and onset with epidemic trends was explored basing on the distribution features of subclinical infection with M. leprae in household contacts of leprosy. In addition, the multiple linear regression was used to analyse the factors affected the level of antibody in leprosy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

House-to-house, community-wide chemoprophylaxis for meningococcal disease: an aggressive approach to disease prevention.

During an outbreak of meningococcal disease in a rural community in southwest Alabama in 1975-76, we undertook an aggressive campaign of house-to-house, community-wide chemoprophylaxis distribution. Over a three-day period 1,045 households were visited and 4,454 persons received medication. The 1970 census lists 967 households with 4,067 persons residing in the community. To evaluate compliance we cultured for meningococcal carriers before and after the chemoprophylaxis campaign. All of the previously discovered carriers were negative three weeks after the drug distribution. The cost of the campaign ($26,520) was very small compared to the possible benefit achieved. The methods of planning and executing this campaign are described in detail.

Alabama↗
PubMed2002

Diarrhea prevention through household-level water disinfection and safe storage in Zambia.

A water quality intervention that consists of water treatment, safe storage, and community education was field tested in Kitwe, Zambia. A total of 166 intervention households were randomly selected from one community and 94 control households from another. Baseline surveys were conducted and the intervention was distributed. Weekly active diarrhea surveillance, biweekly water testing, and a follow-up survey were conducted. Compliance was high in intervention households: 97% reported using disinfectant and 72-95% had measurable chlorine in their water in biweekly testing. The percentage of intervention households storing water safely increased from 41.5% to 89.2%. Stored water in intervention households was significantly less contaminated with Escherichia coli than water in control households (P < 0.001). Diarrheal disease risk for individuals in intervention households was 48% lower than for controls (95% confidence interval = 0.3, 0.9). This intervention is a useful tool for preventing waterborne diseases in families in developing countries who lack access to potable water.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Scabies infestation: the effect of intervention by public health education.

The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of scabies in an infested village; to educate the residents on self-treatment and prevention by the use of 5% monosulfiram soap; to evaluate the short term effectiveness of this intervention by determining, 2 weeks later, the compliance to self-treatment and prevention; and to determine the prevalence rate on the second visit. In 59 households (96.7% of the village) containing 313 persons, an educational session was held and a leaflet distributed on the use and availability of the soap. Thirteen persons (4.2%) from eight households (13.6%) had scabies. After 2 weeks, 7 persons (2.2%) (2 persisting and 5 new cases) from 5 households (8.5%) were infested. Thus a cure rate of 85% was obtained though the prevalence rate showed no statistically significant difference. Among the under 15 year olds, the numbers infected decreased from 10 to 3 while among the over 15 years olds, the numbers infected increased from 3 to 4, neither reading significance at the 5% level.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Birth and death rate estimates of cats and dogs in U.S. households and related factors.

Studies report variable factors associated with dog and cat surpluses in the United States. Estimates of cat and dog birth and death rates help understand the problem. This study collected data through a commercial survey company, distributing questionnaires to 7,399 cat- and dog-owning households (HHs) in 1996. The study used an unequal probability sampling plan and reported estimates of means and variances as weighted averages. The study used estimates of HHs and companion animals for national projections. More than 9 million owned cats and dogs died during 1996-yielding crude death rates of 8.3 cat deaths/100 cats in HHs and 7.9 dog deaths/100 dogs in HHs. The study reported twice as many kitten as puppy litters, with an average litter size of 5.73 and 7.57, respectively. The study reported data on planned versus unplanned litters, reasons caregivers did not spay females, disposition of litters, and sources of animals added to HHs. These first national estimates indicate the magnitude of, and reasons for, animals leaving HHs. The crude birth rate was estimated to be 11.2 kittens/100 cats in HHs and 11.4 puppies/100 dogs in HHs.

Animal Welfare↗
PubMed2000

Control of onchocerciasis in Nzerem-Ikpem, Nigeria: baseline prevalence and mass distribution of ivermectin.

Data from a survey of endemicity of human onchocerciasis and subsequent mass distribution of ivermectin to control this disease in 9 villages of the Nzerem-Ikpem community in the Imo River basin of Nigeria are presented. Of the 1126 persons examined, 46.2% were positive for skin microfilarial, 29.2% for leopard skin, 34.2% for palpable subcutaneous nodules and 14.8% for various types of onchodermatitis. Ivermectin was distributed to a total of 1934 persons living in 233 households. The treatment coverage rate was 51%. 12.8% of those treated reported various mild reactions to the microfilaricide. Implications for community participation and long term sustenance of mass distribution programs are discussed.

Adult↗