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PubMed1962

Sound stimulation and its effect on dental sensation threshold.

The success of "auditory analgesia" in dental operations may be a result of distraction, suggestion, or cross-sensory masking, or of a combination of the three. An attempt to separate these influences was made by measuring the change in sensitivity to electrical stimulation of the teeth in typical dental patients upon presentation of loud white noise. No differences in this "tingle" threshold under noise and no-noise conditions were found, either when preliminary instructions were neutral or after implicit or explicit suggestion that the noise would raise the threshold. These results indicate that auditory analgesia is probably not an example of cross-sensory masking, and that its successful use in the clinical situation depends both on distraction and on suggestion.

Analgesia↗
PubMed1988

Technical intuition in system diagnosis, or accessing the libraries of the mind.

Expert diagnosticians draw upon rich, integrated structures of knowledge and associated action rules to achieve their prodigious performances. Studies in both medical diagnosis and electronic troubleshooting have revealed that it is particularized knowledge that plays a vital role for experts in both domains, not inexplicable powers of intuition. Advanced knowledge engineering methods have been developed and applied in a number of Air Force technical domains so that experts' mental databases and procedural libraries can be made explicit enough to serve as targets of instruction. Instructional principles have been derived from this knowledge engineering work and are guiding the development of a new generation of Air Force technical training systems. The training dictum is to teach from realistic cases so that theory of system operation and specialized solution methods are taught in tandem. The learning environments will further foster the welding of factual knowledge to action rules by providing "assisted laboratory" experiences via intelligent tutoring systems. In these environments, trainees can practice carrying out diagnoses on increasingly complex problems with the help of an articulate expert coach.

Expert Systems↗
PubMed1997

Implicit memory effects when using pictures with children and adults: hypermnesia too?

Pictorial stimuli were used to investigate implicit- and explicit-memory phenomena in 3 experiments. The general procedure involved the presentation of a series of pictures during a study phase, followed by an implicit-memory test and an explicit-memory test. In the implicit-memory test, participants were presented with picture fragments and were instructed to write down what the fragment looked like. In the explicit-memory test, participants were asked to make a yes/no recognition decision regarding each picture. For children, implicit memory for pictures was robust when they were tested after a 48-hr interval, but that effect declined after 1 week; a similar implicit-memory effect for pictures was seen with college students; and the time course of the implicit-memory effect for pictures among college students (all short intervals of less than 1 week-1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 days) produced a more elevated implicit-memory performance than during the immediate testing condition. Hypermnesia may have been the cause of the increase in memory performance over the short intervals.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of tutoring in phonological and early reading skills on students at risk for reading disabilities.

This study examined the effectiveness of nonprofessional tutors in a phonologically based reading treatment similar to those in which successful reading outcomes have been demonstrated. Participants were 23 first graders at risk for learning disability who received intensive one-to-one tutoring from noncertified tutors for 30 minutes, 4 days a week, for one school year. Tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, letter-sound correspondence, explicit decoding, rime analysis, writing, spelling, and reading phonetically controlled text. At year end, tutored students significantly outperformed untutored control students on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding. Effect sizes ranged from .42 to 1.24. Treatment effects diminished at follow-up at the end of second grade, although tutored students continued to significantly outperform untutored students in decoding and spelling. Findings suggest that phonologically based reading instruction for first graders at risk for learning disability can be delivered by nonteacher tutors. Our discussion addresses the character of reading outcomes associated with tutoring, individual differences in response to treatment, and the infrastructure required for nonprofessional tutoring programs.

Certification↗
PubMed1988

Self-ratings of personality: a naturalistic comparison of normative, ipsative, and idiothetic standards.

The purpose of this research is to examine some of the implicit standards that individuals may use when they rate themselves on personality dimensions. Specifically, we compared ratings based on instructions that specified normative, ipsative, or idiothetic criteria with ratings obtained when subjects used their own (implicit) standards. In a series of three studies, we found that each of the explicit ratings was highly similar to the implicit-standard ratings and that there were substantial individual differences in the relative similarity of each of the explicit ratings to the implicit ratings. However, because the normative instructions elicited less extreme responses than any of the other instructions, there was a small but consistent tendency for them to be less similar to the ratings based on implicit standards than the ipsative or idiothetic ratings. The implications of this research for personality assessment and self-evaluation are discussed.

Female↗
PubMed2005

Implicit and explicit appraisals of the importance of intrusive thoughts.

To evaluate cognitive theories of obsessions, the current study experimentally manipulated appraisals of the importance of intrusive thoughts. Undergraduate students (N = 156) completed measures of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms and beliefs and were primed with a list of commonly reported unwanted thoughts. Participants were then informed that unwanted thoughts are either (1) significant and indicative of their personal values, or (2) meaningless, or participants (3) received no instructions about unwanted thoughts. Participants then completed implicit and explicit measures of self-evaluation and interpretations of their unwanted thoughts. Results indicated that the manipulation shifted implicit appraisals of unwanted thoughts in the expected direction, but not self-evaluations of morality or dangerousness. Interestingly, explicit self-esteem and beliefs about the significance of unwanted thoughts were associated with measures of OCD beliefs, whereas implicit self-evaluations of dangerousness were better predicted by the interaction of pre-existing OCD beliefs with the manipulation. Results are discussed in terms of divergent predictors of implicit and explicit responses to unwanted thoughts.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

The nonspeech assessment of hemispheric specialization in retarded children.

A visual half-field presentation technique was used to assess hemispheric asymmetries in young, language-deficient, retarded children who had been taught a nonspeech graphic symbol system. Unlike most tachistoscopic and dichotic listening methods, the present method did not require verbal instruction or verbal responses. In addition, the subjects' explicit understanding of the need to fixate visually prior to stimulus presentation was not necessary. Meaningful graphic symbols were recognized more accurately when presented to the hemisphere associated with the dominant eye and hand. Recognition of meaningless symbols was best when they were presented to the nondominant hemisphere. There was a significant hemispheric specialization effect similar to what would be expected in older, normal subjects using traditional methods.

Child↗
PubMed2004

The effects of self-focused attention, performance demand, and dispositional sexual self-consciousness on sexual arousal of sexually functional and dysfunctional men.

Sexually functional (N=26) and sexually dysfunctional heterosexual men with psychogenic erectile disorder (N=23) viewed two sexually explicit videos. Performance demand was manipulated through verbal instruction that a substantial genital response was to be expected from the videos. Self-focused attention was manipulated by introducing a camera pointed at the participant. Dispositional self-consciousness was assessed by questionnaire. Performance demand was found to independently inhibit the genital response. No main effect of self-focus was found. Self-focus inhibited genital response in men scoring high on general and sexual self-consciousness traits, whereas it enhanced penile tumescence in low self-conscious men. Inhibition effects were found in both volunteers and patients. No interaction effects of performance demand and self-focus were found. Subjective sexual arousal in sexually functional men was highest in the self-focus condition. In sexually dysfunctional men, subjective sexual response proved dependent on locus of attention as well as presentation order.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Robot-assisted adaptive training: custom force fields for teaching movement patterns.

Based on recent studies of neuro-adaptive control, we tested a new iterative algorithm to generate custom training forces to "trick" subjects into altering their target-directed reaching movements to a prechosen movement as an after-effect of adaptation. The prechosen movement goal, a sinusoidal-shaped path from start to end point, was never explicitly conveyed to the subject. We hypothesized that the adaptation would cause an alteration in the feedforward command that would result in the prechosen movement. Our results showed that when forces were suddenly removed after a training period of 330 movements, trajectories were significantly shifted toward the prechosen movement. However, de-adaptation occurred (i.e., the after-effect "washed out") in the 50-75 movements that followed the removal of the training forces. A second experiment suppressed vision of hand location and found a detectable reduction in the washout of after-effects, suggesting that visual feedback of error critically influences learning. A final experiment demonstrated that after-effects were also present in the neighborhood of training--44% of original directional shift was seen in adjacent, unpracticed movement directions to targets that were 60 degrees different from the targets used for training. These results demonstrate the potential for these methods for teaching motor skills and for neuro-rehabilitation of brain-injured patients. This is a form of "implicit learning," because unlike explicit training methods, subjects learn movements with minimal instructions, no knowledge of, and little attention to the trajectory.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1994

The dangerous practice of thinking.

Information processing theory views thinking as the adaptation of activity to environmental inputs. A dual cognitive structure is proposed to explain this adaptation, in which thoughts are selected by interactions between an explicit memory system (accessible to consciousness) and an implicit memory system (inaccessible to consciousness). Contrary to commonsense assumptions about cognition, the implicit system plays the dominant role in skilled thinking. The explicit system has a largely regulatory function, overriding the implicit system when it encounters novel situations for which it has no response. Although the explicit system may be developed by cognitive process instruction in the classroom, the all-important implicit system is developed mainly by direct experience of the work environment independently of conscious information processing. Paradoxically, there are no grounds for declaring any part of medical science irrelevant to practical decision-making, as its effects on implicit memory are unknown. Nevertheless, it should be taught as the basis for regulating a process of thinking that is mainly implicit.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2002

Task instructions influence the cognitive strategies involved in line bisection judgements: evidence from modulated neural mechanisms revealed by fMRI.

Manual line bisection and a perceptual variant thereof (the Landmark test) are widely used to assess visuospatial neglect in neurological patients, but little is known about the cognitive strategies involved. In the Landmark test, one could explicitly compare the lengths of the left and right line segments; alternatively, one could compute the centre of mass of the display. We here investigate with functional MRI if these cognitive strategies modulate the neural mechanisms underlying judgements whether pre-transected horizontal lines are correctly bisected (the Landmark test) in normal volunteers. Functional neuroimaging (fMRI) was carried out in 12 healthy volunteers who judged: (a) whether the line segments on either side of the transection mark were of equal length, and (b) whether the transection mark was in the centre of the line. Line centre judgements were made significantly faster than line length comparisons. Increased neural activity common to both strategies was observed in inferior parietal lobes bilaterally and right temporooccipital cortex. Further activations, most likely reflecting general task demands like response selection and motor control, were found in the precentral gyrus bilaterally, supplementary motor area bilaterally, right anterior cingulate, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, cerebellar vermis, and right thalamus and right putamen. Explicit length comparisons (relative to line centre judgements) differentially activated left superior posterior parietal cortex, with a tendency toward activation of the equivalent area on the right, while the reverse comparison revealed differential activation in the lingual gyrus bilaterally and anterior cingulate cortex. The activations observed in inferior parietal cortex during task performance using either strategy are consistent with the results of lesion studies. The differential activation of superior posterior parietal cortex following length instructions suggests that explicit comparisons of spatial extent were implicated. The differential activation of bilateral occipital cortex following centre judgements suggests that the centre of a line is extracted at an early stage of visual processing.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

The effect of imagery on explicit and implicit tests of memory in young and old people: a double dissociation.

The use of imagery as an elaborative study task was examined to determine its effects on implicit and explicit tests of memory in both young and old adults. Both the implicit and explicit tests were word-stem completion tests, identical except for their instructional content. Results showed that imaging the referent of a visually-presented word during the initial study period significantly improved the performance of the young adults on the explicit test of memory, but reduced their performance on the implicit test. The test results of the elderly subjects showed a similar trend in that explicit test performance was significantly improved following an imagery study task whereas implicit test performance was reduced following this same task. These results did not, however, reach the level of significance, observed for young adults. The results are discussed within the framework of a processing account of implicit/explicit dissociations.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Musical stem completion: humming that note.

This study looked at how people store and retrieve tonal music explicitly and implicitly using a production task. Participants completed an implicit task (tune stem completion) followed by an explicit task (cued recall). The tasks were identical except for the instructions at test time. They listened to tunes and were then presented with tune stems from previously heard tunes and novel tunes. For the implicit task, they were asked to sing a note they thought would come next musically. For the explicit task, they were asked to sing the note they remembered as coming next. Experiment 1 found that people correctly completed significantly more old stems than new stems. Experiment 2 investigated the characteristics of music that fuel retrieval by varying a surface feature of the tune (same timbre or different timbre) from study to test and the encoding task (semantic or nonsemantic). Although we did not find that implicit and explicit memory for music were significantly dissociated for levels of processing, we did find that surface features of music affect semanticjudgments and subsequent explicit retrieval.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Editors' requests of peer reviewers: a study and a proposal.

BACKGROUND: Despite the pivotal role of peer review in the scientific process, there has never been a formal study of the way in which reviewers' opinions are elicited. This article describes such a study and makes recommendations for a more standardized approach to the peer review process. We hope, through this publication and related efforts, to encourage such a process in Preventive Medicine and in other journals. METHOD: The study population included the top 100 journals (as rated by the 1989 Institute for Scientific Information citation frequency index). Only journals with primarily U.S.-based editorial offices are included (n = 73). Participants provided their reviewer forms, cover letters for reviewers, and instructions for reviewers that were used routinely. All data were collected in February 1992. RESULTS: The response rate was 97.3%. Journals varied substantially in many of their reviewer requests. While 96% of journals asked reviewers to recommend acceptance or rejection, only 72% asked reviewers to assess manuscripts' novelty, 69% requested assessments of clarity, and only 51% asked for assessments of the reasonableness of manuscripts' conclusions. Similarly, only 46% of journals reminded reviewers that manuscripts were confidential documents, 51% provided a separate cover letter, and 25% provided extensive (>1 full page) reviewer instructions. CONCLUSIONS: While review uniformity is not requisite, differences between review protocols may not be a function of specific journals' needs, but of some journals' excluding important review components from explicit mention. Based in part on the Council of Biology Editors' recommendations, standard components of reviews and of instructions for reviewers are suggested. If editors' expectations were more explicit, reviewers' comments could better serve editorial needs.

Humans↗
PubMed2000

A content analysis of state hospital policies on sex between inpatients.

Eighty-one state psychiatric hospitals in 16 states were surveyed about whether they had policies on sex between inpatients. Thirty-one hospitals responded by sending a copy of their policies, which were analyzed for explicit definitions and distinctions between various sexual behaviors; for the presence and content of statements about patients' rights and personal autonomy, duty to protect, competency to consent, and staff guidance and education; and for instructions on the management of sexual incidents. Fourteen of the 31 policies explicitly forbade inpatient sex; 12 stressed patient autonomy. Only five specified that staff should receive special training. The results indicate that hospitals vary widely in their attention and management approach to inpatients' sexual behavior.

Health Care Surveys↗
PubMed1989

Effects of instruction on intrinsic interest: the importance of context.

Two studies examined how contextual cues influence the impact of receiving instructions for improving performance on intrinsic motivation. The authors proposed that whether instruction enhances or decreases motivation depends on the salience of performance goals. Goal salience was proposed to be a function of how an individual defines the activity, which, in turn, may be influenced by contextual features. To test this hypothesis, the authors used a computer game that emphasized fantasy in addition to skill, and they varied the presence of contextual cues highlighting performance. In Study 1, the authors varied the presence of prior performance feedback, and found that instruction decreased interest only when no prior performance feedback (positive or negative) was received. In Study 2, the authors explicitly manipulated contextual salience by describing the activity's goals as either skill- or fantasy-related. Instruction decreased interest in the fantasy-emphasis context, but increased interest in the skill-emphasis context. Furthermore, when instruction matched perceived goals Ss experienced greater positive affect while performing the task. The implications for models of intrinsic motivation are discussed.

Achievement↗
PubMed2005

Associative and causal reasoning accounts of causal induction: symmetries and asymmetries in predictive and diagnostic inferences.

Associative and causal reasoning accounts are probably the two most influential types of accounts of causal reasoning processes. Only causal reasoning accounts predict certain asymmetries between predictive (i.e., reasoning from causes to effects) and diagnostic (i.e., reasoning from effects to causes) inferences regarding cue-interaction phenomena (e.g., the overshadowing effect). In the experiments reported here, we attempted to delimit the conditions under which these asymmetries occur. The results show that unless participants perceived the relevance of causal information to solving the task, predictive and diagnostic inferences were symmetrical. Specifically, Experiments 1A and 1B showed that implicitly stressing the relevance of causal information by having participants review the instructions favored the presence of asymmetries between predictive and diagnostic situations. In addition, Experiment 2 showed that explicitly stressing the relevance of causal information by stating the importance of the causal role of events after the instructions were given also favored the asymmetry.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Activation of the precuneus is related to reduced reaction time in serial reaction time tasks.

Multiple brain areas are activated during serial reaction time (RT) tasks (SRTTs), but the part of the brain that facilitates reductions in RT remains unclear. The present study attempted to determine the brain region contributing most to improved RTs during explicit SRTTs. Subjects comprised 18 healthy volunteers who were instructed to press one of four buttons corresponding to visual stimuli as quickly as possible and with minimal errors during functional MRI. Stimuli were presented either in random order (control condition) or in a repeated six-item sequence (learning condition). Conventional analysis contrasting learning and control conditions revealed activation in the prefrontal-parietal area, which shifted to motor area. Subjects with high RT reduction showed more prominent activation in the precuneus than subjects with low RT reduction. Intra-subject correlation analysis revealed that time course of precuneus activation was unrelated to time-course of RT reduction. However, inter-subject correlation analysis revealed that RT changes correlate only with precuneus activation, meaning that subjects showing more prominent RT reduction revealed more prominent activation of the precuneus, which is known to play critical roles in controlling finger movements with reference to buffered memory.

Adult↗