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PubMed2000

Role of skeletal muscle on impaired insulin sensitivity in rats fed a sucrose-rich diet: effect of moderate levels of dietary fish oil.

In the present study we investigated: (1) the contribution of the skeletal muscle to the mechanisms underlying the impaired glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity present in dyslipemic rats fed a sucrose-rich diet (SRD) over a long period of time and (2) the effect of fish oil on these parameters when there was a stable hypertriglyceridemia before the source of fat (corn oil) in the diet was replaced by isocaloric amounts of cod liver oil. Our results show an increased triglyceride content in the gastrocnemius muscle with an impaired capacity for glucose oxidation in the basal state and during euglycemic clamp. This was mainly due to a decrease of the active form of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHa) and an increase of PDH kinase activities. Hyperglycemia, normoinsulinemia, and diminished peripheral insulin sensitivity also were found. Even though there were no changes in the insulin levels, the former metabolic abnormalities were completely reversed when the source of fat was changed from corn oil to cod liver oil. The data also suggest that in the gastrocnemius muscle of rats fed a SRD over an extended period, an increased availability and oxidation of the lipid fuel, which in turn impairs the glucose oxidation, contributes to the abnormal glucose homeostasis and to the peripheral insulin insensitivity. Moreover, the parallel effect on insulin sensitivity, glucose, and lipid homeostasis attained through the manipulation of dietary fat (n-3) in the SRD suggests a role of n-3 fatty acid in the management of dyslipidemia and insulin resistance.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1996

Dietary fish oil normalize dyslipidemia and glucose intolerance with unchanged insulin levels in rats fed a high sucrose diet.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the lipid-lowering effects of fish oils and concomitant consequences on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in an experimental animal model of hypertriglyceridemia induced by high sucrose intake. To achieve this goal, male Wistar rats were fed a semi-synthetic sucrose rich diet (SRD) (w/w: 62.3% sucrose, 8% corn oil, 17% protein) for 90 days. At the time, a well established and permanent hypertriglyceridemia accompanied by glucose intolerance was present. After that, one half of the animals continued on the SRD up to 120 days. The other half received an SRD in which the source of fat was substituted by cod liver oil (w/w 7% CLO plus 1% corn oil) from day 90 to 120 (SRD+CLO). Control rats were fed a semi-synthetic diet (CD) (w/w: 62.5% corn starch, 8% corn oil, 17% protein) throughout the 120 days experimental period. Results obtained after the experimental period show that the hypertriglyceridemia and glucose intolerance ensuing long term feeding normal rats with a sucrose-rich diet could be completely reversed mediating no change in circulating insulin levels by shifting the source of fat in the diet from corn oil to cod liver oil. These findings suggest that manipulation of dietary fats may play a role in the management of the lipid disorders associated with glucose intolerance and insulin resistance.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[A change in erythrocyte membrane permeability in rodents under the influence of fish oil, vitamin E and fatty acids].

In experiments on 370 gerbils (Meriones tamariscinus) and 56 albino rats, studies have been made on the effects of vitamin E, rancid cod-liver oil and unsaturated fatty acids (oleic, oxidated oleic and linoleic) upon the permeability of erythrocyte membrane. Osmotic fragility of erythrocytes to hypotonic NaCl solutions was measured. Seasonal changes in the permeability and sexual differences in these changes were observed. In M. tamariscinus the addition of vitamin E, cod-liver oil and unsaturated fatty acids to the food results in changes of erythrocyte permeability. The pattern of these changes depends on the season of year, differences in nutrition, as well as on fat and tocophenol stores in the organism, which are different in males and females. In albino rats, changes of erythrocyte permeability induced by vitamin E and cod-liver oil are rather insignificant.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Changes of blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats dependent on the quantity and quality of fat intake.

The effect of diets rich or deficient in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on blood pressure of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and normotensive Wistar rats (WR) was studied. The diets contained either sunflower oil (PUR-SOL), linseed oil (PUR-LIN), cod-liver oil or hydrogenated palm-kernel oil (PUFA-deficient) amounting to 15 or 3 weight percent of fat. They were started at weaning (4 weeks of age) for 22 weeks or prenatally one week before mating of the parents. During the development of hypertension in SHR, systolic blood pressure was decreased in animals of all dietary groups fed 15% fat when compared to SHR on normal food (pellets), i.e. independent of the various diets loaded, all diets containing 15% fat led to a marked delay in the onset of high blood pressure as compared to SHR on normal pellet food. After manifestation of hypertension, obviously a more differentiated effect on blood pressure could be shown in SHR in dependence on different amounts of PUFA loaded. In normotensive Wistar rats (WR) after feeding linseed oil or sunflower oil also a significant lowering in blood pressure could be observed in comparison to controls fed pellets. But after feeding cod-liver oil there was no decrease in blood pressure of normotensive Wistar rats, whereas palm-kernel oil resulted in a blood pressure lowering effect only at the later age of normotensive Wistar rats. Moreover, in SHR after prenatal feeding of a LA-rich, but also a PUFA-deficient diet the blood pressure lowering effect was more pronounced as compared to postnatal feeding of the diets. SHR fed a 15% fat diet showed a significantly lower body weight in comparison to SHR fed a 3% fat diet. In both dietary groups SHR were significantly smaller than SHR fed pellets. In WKY fed a 3% or a 15% fat diet the same body weight could be confirmed. Food intake in SHR fed a 3% fat diet ad libitum appeared higher than in SHR fed a 15% fat diet ad libitum. However, considering the uptake of energy no differences between the groups could be seen. Therefore, in SHR fed a 15% fat diet, body weight and blood pressure were lowest when compared with the other groups of SHR indicating that body weight in SHR might be nearly connected with blood pressure level.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Age Factors↗
PubMed1976

Studies on the nutrition of marine flatfish. The effect of different dietary fatty acids on the growth and fatty acid composition of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus).

1. Five groups of juvenile turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) which had been given a diet free of fat for 12 weeks were given diets in which the lipid component (g/kg) was: oleic acid alone 50, oleic acid 40+linoleic acid 10, oleic acid 40+linolenic acid 10, oleic acid40+arachidonic acid 10 or oleic acid 40+cod-liver oil 10. These five experimental diets were given for 16 weeks. 2. Weight gains were highest in the group given the diet containing cod-liver oil and lowest in the groups given diets containing oleic acid alone or oleic acid+linoleic acid. Weight gains in the groups given oleic acid+arachidonic acid or linolenic acid were markedly inferior to those of the group given oleic acid+cod-liver oil. It is concluded that arachidonic acid is inferior to polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega3 series in maintaining growth rate in turbot. 3. Fatty acid analyses of neutral lipids and phospholipids of liver and extrahepatic tissues did not suggest any evidence of desaturation of dietary oleic acid, linoleic acid or linolenic acid by the turbot. These experiments confirm previous isotopic evidence that turbot lack the necessary microsomal desaturases to perform this metabolic transformation.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Effects of early intake of fruit or vegetables in relation to later asthma and allergic sensitization in school-age children.

AIM: To assess the associations between nutrition supplements in infancy and later asthma and allergy in school-age children, and to explore the impact of environmental factors in early life. METHODS: Five hundred and two children underwent clinical examination, skin prick test and a second parentally completed questionnaire within 2 y of a cross-sectional questionnairebased study, including 4585 primary school children (6-16 y old) in 1994 from urban Oslo (37%), the mountainous area of Hallingdal (42%), and the industrial, coastal area of Odda (21%). The children were selected from the 1994 survey on the basis of reported diagnosed asthma (n=166), wheeze in the last 12 mo (n=155) and no asthma/no wheeze (n=181). Questions were related to nutrition and environmental exposure in early life. Possible associations between allergic sensitization or asthma at school age and exposures were estimated by logistic regression analysis, adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: Daily intake of fresh fruit or vegetables, but not extra vitamins or cod liver oil supplements, in infancy decreased the risk of asthma (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.57 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.37-0.88). Early supplements of cod liver oil and extra vitamins were associated with increased allergic sensitization (aOR 1.78 (95% CI: 1.03-3.07) and 1.71 (95% CI: 1.01-2.88), respectively). A significantly higher prevalence of allergic sensitization was found in children living in Hallingdal compared to Odda, while the latter children, on the other hand, had the highest prevalence of house dust mite allergy (p = 0.001 vs Hallingdal and p = 0.04 vs Oslo). CONCLUSION: The present study suggests that the early introduction of daily fresh fruit or vegetables may decrease the risk of asthma after 1 y of life, whereas allergic sensitization at school age seemed to increase with extra vitamin and cod liver oil supplements during infancy. Living area influenced allergic sensitization, with differences between coastal and inland areas.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

The effects of heparin and dietary fish oil on embolic events and the microcirculation downstream from a small-artery repair.

In recent studies we demonstrated that platelet emboli induced by arterial injury impair the microcirculation. The present study was performed to determine if heparin or dietary cod liver oil reduces the incidence of emboli following the same arterial injury and, in turn, whether these agents prevent the associated decrease in microcirculatory blood flow. The cremaster muscle of 29 male Sprague-Dawley rats was isolated on a single neurovascular bundle consisting of the iliac artery and vein and the genitofemoral nerve. Emboli were generated by a thrombogenic injury of the iliac artery, and their number and their subsequent effect on capillary perfusion in the downstream microcirculation were measured. Nine animals received heparin (10-unit IV bolus plus 10 units/hour IV infusion), 10 were fed cod liver oil (10 percent by weight of food) for 3 weeks prior to the experiment, and 9 animals receiving no treatment served as controls. The number of emboli was significantly reduced in the heparin group, but there was no accompanying improvement in capillary perfusion. In contrast, in the cod liver oil group, the number of emboli was not reduced, but there was significant improvement in capillary perfusion. These findings suggest that the harmful effect that platelet emboli have on the microcirculation is probably biochemical in nature (vasoconstriction) rather than related to simple mechanical obstruction to flow.

Anastomosis, Surgical↗
PubMed1984

Effects of dietary fats and phytosterol on serum fatty acid composition and lipoprotein cholesterol in rats.

The effects of dietary fats and phytosterol on the fatty acid composition and lipoprotein cholesterol in serum were studied in female rats, with the following results. (1) The addition of 1% cholesterol to the 20% butter diet decreased the ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) to saturated fatty acid (SFA) in serum. This phenomenon was negated when there was an intake of cod liver oil and wheat germ oil. (2) When cholesterol was added to the 20% butter diet, the serum total cholesterol increased 3.7-fold, due to an increase in the lower density lipoprotein (LDL + VLDL). (3) The addition of 5% phytosterol to the 10% butter-cholesterol diet reduced the total cholesterol level and increased the ratio of cholesterol in high density lipoprotein (HDL) to the cholesterol in LDL + VLDL. Although a 10% cod liver oil addition also reduced the total cholesterol level, the ratio of HDL/LDL + VLDL was similar to that of the 10% butter-cholesterol diet. (4) A direct relationship was found between the concentration of oleic acid (18:1) in serum and the total cholesterol level (r = 0.947) and also the level of LDL + VLDL-cholesterol (r = 0.935). These results show that cod liver oil, wheat germ oil, and phytosterol induce an increase in the PUFA/SFA ratio, promote hypocholesterolemia, and change lipoprotein concentration. However, there were indications that no relationship exists between the change in the total cholesterol level and the change in the ratio of HDL/LDL + VLDL, and that the increase of total cholesterol and LDL + VLDL-cholesterol was consistent with the increase of oleic acid in serum.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

The effect of dietary lipids and antioxidants on the activity of epoxide hydratase in the rat liver and intestine.

The effect of varying the fatty acid composition of the lipid components of the diet on the activity of epoxide hydratase in the rat liver and intestinal mucosa has been studied. Feeding a 10% cod liver oil diet (containing 18% C20:5 and 11% C22:6) resulted in a 3-fold increase in epoxide hydratase activity in the liver and a 1.6-fold increase in the intestine compared to rats fed a fat-free diet. The activity of epoxide hydratase in rats fed a cod liver oil diet was significantly greater than that for the group fed a lard diet (containing mainly saturated and mono-unsaturated fatty acids) containing the same quantity of vitamin E. Thus, the enhancing effect of the cod liver oil diet was due to the polyunsaturated fatty acids in this oil. Dietary corn oil (58% C18:2) also stimulated epoxide hydratase activity in the liver but not in the intestine. Vitamin E levels of up to 500 mg/kg diet were ineffective at inducing epoxide hydratase activity in both the liver and intestine. Significant changes in the fatty acid composition of hepatic and intestinal microsomes took place when rats were fed diets of different fatty acid composition. These changes were such that the proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the microsomal fractions reflected the amounts of these fatty acids in the dietary fat. Hepatic epoxide hydratase activity was found to be positively correlated to the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the microsomal fractions of the liver.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Reemerging nutritional rickets: a historical perspective.

Recent case reports highlight the resurgence of rickets in certain groups of breastfed infants. Infants residing in the North, irrespective of skin color, and dark-skinned African American infants residing anywhere in the United States are most vulnerable to nutritional rickets if they are exclusively breastfed past age 6 months without vitamin D supplementation. At the turn of the 20th century, rickets was nearly universal among African American infants living in the North. The discovery of vitamin D, the initiation of public health campaigns to fortify infant foods with vitamin D, and the supplementation of vitamin D to breastfed infants were responsible for overcoming the rickets scourge. We review a classic nutritional study by Alfred F. Hess, one of the greatest clinical nutritional researchers of the early 20th century, in the context of the resurgence of rickets, especially among dark-skinned infants. The Columbus Hill district, a black community of New York, NY, served as the setting for the study. Sixty-five infants (aged 1-17 months) entered a 6-month open-label trial of daily cod liver oil therapy. Participants were assessed for signs of rickets at recruitment and at 2, 4, and 6 months. Cod liver oil prevented the development of rickets in 34 (92%) of 37 infants treated for 6 months and in 7 (58%) of 12 treated for 4 months. Of the 16 infants who did not take the prescribed treatment, rickets progressed unremittingly in 15. Hess translated his success into a public health campaign leading to the development of the first rickets clinic in 1917. This was the first step in the conquest of the rickets epidemic of the early 20th century.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1994

Steroidal and nonsteroidal drugs in endotoxin-induced uveitis.

Various classes of anti-inflammatory compounds like steroids (dexamethasone), cyclooxygenase inhibitors (indomethacin and flurbiprofen), 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors (BWA 218C and BWA 4C), immunosuppressive drugs (cyclosporin and rapamycin) and cod liver oil were tested for their antiinflammatory activities in endotoxin-induced uveitis model in rabbits. Intraocular inflammation was assessed in terms of two inflammatory responses i.e. breakdown of blood-aqueous barrier (BAB) and leukocyte infiltration into aqueous humor and iris ciliary body (ICB). Prostaglandin (PG) E2 and leukotriene (LT) B4 release into aqueous humor was also measured. Indomethacin significantly inhibited PGE2 release without affecting leukocyte or BAB response. Flurbiprofen prevented leukocyte, PGE2 and LTB4 release into aqueous humor but not ICB chemotaxis. BWA 218C and BWA 4C also significantly inhibited leukocyte and LTB4 release but not BAB responses. Dexamethasone (2mg/kg, i.m.) and cyclosporin A (25 mg/kg i.m.) significantly inhibited leukocyte infiltration into aqueous humor and ICB, and PGE2 release but they failed to inhibit breakdown of BAB and LTB4 release. On the other hand, rapamycin (10mg/kg i.m.) and cod liver oil (1 ml daily i.m. up to 15 days) significantly prevented leukocyte and BAB response. Cod liver oil also significantly inhibited PGE2 and LTB4 release but rapamycin affected only PGE2 release into aqueous humor. It is concluded that arachidonic acid metabolites may not play a vital role in this uveitis model and additional proinflammatory mediators like cytokines may be involved.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Use of alternative medicines in a multi-ethnic population.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence and cost of regular use of non-prescribed alternative medicines are rising around the world, yet, little evidence is available that demonstrates the safety, efficacy, or effectiveness of specific alternative medicine interventions. It is of interest to understand how and why these practices have become so popular in different societies with different health care organizations and provisions, and which factors predict the regular use of alternative medicines. METHODS: We assessed the prevalence and the predictors of regular use of non-prescribed vitamin supplements, cod liver oil, primrose oil, and garlic in a cross-sectional population-based study in South London of 1,577 men and women, aged 40-59 years (883 women, 523 White, 549 of African origin and 505 of South Asian origin), when allowing for potential confounders. RESULTS: The prevalence of regular users of alternative medicines was 10.4% (164/1,577); 7.4% (116) made regular use of non-prescribed vitamin supplements, whereas 5.3% (84) used either cod liver oil, primrose oil, or garlic preparations. When adjusted for age, ethnicity and social class, women were more likely than men to use at least one alternative medicine (OR 2.09 [95% CI 1.45-3.00]). This was true both for vitamin supplements (1.98 [1.29-3.03]) and for oil or garlic supplements (1.91 [1.17-3.14]). The use of oil or garlic (P<.005) but not vitamin supplements (P=.32) varied by ethnic group. In particular, Black people of African origin were more likely to use alternative medicines than either Whites (1.78 [1.07-2.94]) or South Asians (1.66 [1.07-2.59]), the least common users. People in social classes IV and V were less likely to use alternative medicines (0.53 [0.31-0.90]) than those in social classes I and II, though this was due more to lesser use of non-prescribed vitamin supplements than of cod liver oil, primrose oil or garlic. These associations were not attenuated by further adjustment for body mass index, smoking, marital status and age at leaving full-time education. CONCLUSIONS: The regular users of alternative medicines in London are more likely to be women, of African origin, and of higher socioeconomic status. Given the lack of evidence of efficacy and safety of these alternative medicines, it is important to understand the cultural differences in values and beliefs about traditional medicine that may underlie these findings.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Dietary manipulation in experimental inflammatory bowel disease.

Eicosanoids are major mediators of defensive and inflammatory processes of the gut mucosa. The activity of the eicosanoid system is modulated by neural and hormonal pathways, but local factors acting within the gastrointestinal lumen may also be involved. We have studied the influence of dietary fatty acids on eicosanoid synthesis by the gastrointestinal mucosa. Since omega-3 fatty acids compete with the omega-6 as precursors of eicosanoid synthesis, we compared the effects of dietary supplementation with either sunflower or cod liver oil as sources of omega-6 or omega-3 fatty acids, respectively. Rats fed with the cod-liver-oil-supplemented diet for four weeks showed high omega-3 and low omega-6 plasma fatty acid levels compared to rats fed with the sunflower oil diet. Synthesis of arachidonic-acid-derived eicosanoids (6-keto-PGF1 alpha, PGE2, TXB2, LTB4, and LTC4) by gastric and intestinal mucosa was found to be lower in the cod liver group as compared to the sunflower group. However, significant generation of eicosapentaenoic-acid-derived eicosanoids (PGE3 and LTC5) was observed only in the cod liver group. We used the (trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid) TNBS model of inflammatory colitis to test the effect of the dietary fat on the development of inflammatory lesions of the bowel. A single intracolonic instillation of the hapten TNBS dissolved in 10% ethanol induces chronic granulomatous lesions of the colonic mucosa that persist for up to 8 weeks. Luminal release of eicosanoid mediators, as measured by intracolonic dialysis, was lower in the cod liver group than in the sunflower group, particularly during the chronic stage of the disease.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Formation of acrylamide from lipids.

Heating amino acids with dietary oils or animal fats at elevated temperatures produced various amounts of acrylamide. The amount of acrylamide formation corresponded to the degree of unsaturation of the oils and animal fats. The decreasing order of acrylamide formation from dietary oils or animal fats with asparagine was sardine oil (642 microg/g asparagine) > cod liver oil (435.4 microg/g) > soybean oil (135.8 microg/g) > corn oil (80.7 microg/g) > olive oil (73.6 microg/g) > canola oil (70.7 microg/g) > corn oil (62.1 microg/g) > beef fat (59.3 microg/g) > lard (36.0 microg/g). Three-carbon unit compounds such as acrylic acid and acrolein, which are formed from lipids by oxidation also produced acrylamide by heat treatment with amino acids, in particular with asparagine. The results of the present study suggest that acrylamide forms in asparagine-rich foods during deep fat frying in the absence reducing sugars.

Acrolein↗
PubMed1999

[Evaluation of the effects of fish and vegetable omega-3 PUFA complex on the erythrocyte fatty acid composition in patients with ischemic heart disease and impaired glucose tolerance].

Anti-atherogenic diet supplemented with "Eicolen" (30% linseed oil, and 70% cod-liver oil, 9 grams per day) has been analyzed in 10 cases of ischemic heart disease, and in 11 cases of ischemic heart disease complicated by impaired glucose tolerance. The fish and vegetable PUFA omega-3 from "Eicolen" have been found to improve clinical condition as well as to modify erythrocyte membrane fatty acid composition. The ratio omega-6/omega-3 decreased in both groups in different grade.

Aged↗
PubMed1987

Response of urinary malondialdehyde to factors that stimulate lipid peroxidation in vivo.

Malondialdehyde (MDA) derivatives occur as normal constituents of rat and human urine. In a previous study, it was found that MDA excretion in rats is responsive to MDA intake and to certain factors that increase lipid peroxidation in vivo: vitamin E deficiency, iron administration and a high concentration of cod liver oil (CLO) fatty acids in the tissues. In the present study, the effect on MDA excretion of several additional dietary and endogenous factors was evaluated. The composition of dietary fatty acids had a major influence on MDA excretion in fed animals, being highest for animals fed n-3 fatty acids (20:5 and 22:6) from CLO, intermediate for those fed n-6 (18:2) acids from corn oil (CO) and lowest for those fed saturated acids from hydrogenated coconut oil (HCO). Diet was the main source of urinary MDA in all groups. Fasting produced a marked increase in urinary MDA, which tended to be higher in rats previously fed CLO. Fasting MDA excretion was not affected by the level of CO in the diet (5, 10 or 15%), indicating that feeding n-6 acids does not increase lipid peroxidation in vivo. Adrenocorticotropic hormone and epinephrine administration increased urinary MDA, further indicating that lipolysis either releases fatty acid peroxides from the tissues or increases the susceptibility of mobilized fatty acids to peroxidation. A decrease in fasting MDA excretion was observed in rats previously fed a high level of antioxidants (vitamin E + BHT + vitamin C) vs a normal level of vitamin E. MDA excretion increased following adriamycin and CCl4 administration.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗
PubMed1982

Vitamin E and lipogenesis in the mammalian liver.

Mice on tocopherol-supplemented and cod-liver-oil-enriched diets were given intraperitoneal injections of tritiated water. The fatty acids and cholesterol from their livers were then extracted and counted. Tocopherol supplementation depressed fatty acid but not cholesterol synthesis. Cod-liver oil (a vitamin E antagonist) elevated fatty acid but not cholesterol synthesis. In both cases, these effects were cancelled or reversed after about 20 days' ingestion of the diet.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Effect of oxidative stress on serum and antioxidant enzymes in liver and kidney of rats and their modulation through dietary factors.

Modulatory effect of a formulated diet based on cereals, pulses and spices incorporated with crude palm oil (CPO), soybean oil (SBO) or cod liver oil (CLO) at 10% dietary level on oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes was studied in liver and kidney tissues. Activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and acid phosphatase (ACP) increased significantly in serum in various experimental groups. Significant increase in hepatic antioxidant enzymes, catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) was also seen in the experimental groups. SOD activity showed a mixed response. Further, kidney antioxidant enzymes did not show much change compared to those in liver. The results indicated dietary lipid as the key players in determining cellular susceptibility to oxidative stress, which could be modulated by cereals, pulses and spices in the diet.

Acid Phosphatase↗