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PubMed2002

On the intrinsic innervation of the epididymis of the camel (Camelus dromedarius).

The innervation of the camel epididymis was studied in 26 apparently healthy, sexually mature animals aged between 4 and 12 years. The material was collected during the different seasons of the year. Generally, five samples were taken from each epididymis. To demonstrate the general innervation pattern, immunohistochemical reactions to protein gene product-9.5, neurofilaments and neuron-specific enolase were used, in addition to acetylcholinesterase histochemistry. The nerve supply of the epididymis comes from two sources: (1) The majority of fibers come from the N. spermaticus inferior and accompany the deferent duct. (2) Another contribution stems from the N. spermaticus superior and enters the head region of the epididymis. From the exterior, the nerves penetrate the capsule of the organ to reach the interductular connective tissue. The terminal ramifications are observed directly within the wall of the duct and the wall of the epididymal arteries. The veins of the camel epididymis are not innervated. In the wall of the ductus epididymidis, the nerve fibers form plexuses at the subepithelial level and in the muscular coat. The amount of nerve fibers increases from the head to the tail, paralleling an increase in the intrinsic musculature. The intramural and interductular innervation of epididymal body and tail shows clear seasonal variations: More fibers and stronger reactions are observed during the winter season; the lowest density and the weakest reactions occur during the summer season. All epididymal nerves of the camel are unmyelinated. The majority of the intramural fibers and all in the arterial wall represent postjunctional sympathetic axons, but in the intramural plexuses of the duct a considerable number of cholinergic fibers are also present. Neuropeptide Y is the most frequent peptidergic transmitter and generally co-localized with dopamine-beta-hydroxylase in the sympathetic axons. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide has a distribution similar to that of the cholinergic fibers. Calcitonin gene-related peptide-positive axons occur in moderate numbers, but never in the arterial innervation. Together with the relatively rare substance P-containing fibers, the calcitonin gene-related peptide-positive axons seem to represent the only sensory nerves in the camel epididymis.

Acetylcholinesterase↗
PubMed2002

Immunohistochemical investigations of the autonomous nerve distribution in the testis of the camel (Camelus dromedarius).

The distribution of autonomous nerves in the testis of the camel was studied by immunohistochemical methods. A total of 26 testes was collected during the different seasons of the year. As pan-neuronal markers, antibodies to protein gene product 9.5 and to neurofilaments are superior to antibodies against neuron-specific enolase and acetylcholinesterase histochemistry for the description of the nerves in the camel testis. Testicular nerves reach the camel testis by three access-routes as (1) funicular contribution, (2) mesorchial contribution and (3) as caudal contribution. The main target for testicular nerves is the arterial vascular tree of the organ, whereas all veins of testis and pampiniform plexus are devoid of any innervation in the camel. In the wall of the arteries, the nerves form a plexus at the media-adventitia border. The density of the arterial plexuses increases along the vascular tree: smaller septal and mediastinal arteries are better innervated than albugineal arteries and the latter better than the A. testicularis. The nerves in the septula testis, in the mediastinum and between the Leydig cells show clear seasonal changes, being particularly abundant in autumn and particularly scarce in spring. The nerves that reach the camel testis are unmyelinated and represent in the vast majority postjunctional sympathetic neurons. Cholinergic fibers are absent in the camel testis. Neuropeptide Y is the dominating peptidergic transmitter in the testicular nerves and colocalized with noradrenaline in the same axons. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-containing fibers reach the camel testis exclusively as parts of the caudal nervous contribution via the ligamentous bridge between testis and epididymal tail and are restricted to the caudal pole of the testis. Calcitonin gene-related peptide-positive axons are not frequent in the camel testis; nevertheless, they seem to be the most important sensory pathway of this organ.

3-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases↗
PubMed1995

Seasonal changes in the intertubular tissue of the camel testis (Camelus dromedarius).

The morphology and morphometry of camel testicular intertubular tissue are reported for different seasons of the year. The intertubular tissue occupies a comparatively large portion of the camel testis ranging from about 24% in autumn to about 39% in spring. The volume percentages of the different intertubular tissue constituents, namely Leydig cells, blood vessels, lymph vessels and various connective tissue components, also display clear seasonal changes. Early in winter, the intertubular tissue is richly vascularized by blood vessels (about 18% of the intertubular volume), whereas lymph vessels constitute only about 3%. This remarkable abundance of blood vessels coincides with the presence of voluminous and active Leydig cells that represent about 44% of the total. In spring, an immense expansion of the lymph vessels is observed (up to about 10% of intertubular tissue), but no change is seen in blood vessels. The Leydig cells in this season constitute only about 19% of the total. In summer, the vascular compartment occupies nearly the same volume as in early winter but with fewer blood and more lymph vessels. The Leydig cell volume percentage is markedly increased (39.3%) as compared with spring. In autumn, blood and lymph vessels record their lowest volume percentages (12% and 2.5%, respectively) and Leydig cell volume is also decreased as compared to summer. The Leydig cell morphology evidently points to two periods of elevated activity during the year. The first period occurs early in winter and is characterised by voluminous Leydig cells (average volume: 1614 microns3) with a well developed and highly organised SER. By spring, the cells are reduced in size (926 microns3) due to a decrease in the amount of SER. The second period of elevated Leydig cell activity is observed in summer and is again characterised by an increased cell volume (1420 microns3) as a consequence of SER development. In summer, however, the SER is not as highly organised as in early winter. The absolute number of Leydig cells per testis also shows clear changes from season to season, being lowest in autumn (3.68 x 10(9) cells) and highest in late winter and spring (6.04 x 10(9) cells). Thus, camel Leydig cells are subject to a permanent turnover. Degenerating Leydig cells are replaced the year round by undifferentiated fibroblastic precursors, whereas Leydig cell mitoses are a rare observation. The strongest waves of replacement seem to follow the peaks of increased Leydig cell activity and occur between summer and autumn as well as in late winter and spring.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Observations on aggregated lymphoid nodules in the cardiac glandular areas of the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus).

Aggregated lymphoid nodules are an important part of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). They are mainly distributed in the ileum and appendix of animals and humans but their distribution in the cardiac glandular area has not been reported. A study of stomach histology in the Bactrian camel has revealed that the nodules are distributed as a band-like region along the ventral wall of the stomach neck, at the beginning of the cranial enlargement and on the lesser curvature. The mucous folds are thicker in these regions than where there are no aggregated lymphoid nodules. The nodules appeared similar to ileal aggregated lymphoid nodules found in other animals and consisted of typical polymorphological lymphatic nodules arranged in a single continuous row occupying the submucosa and forming mucosal folds together with the mucous membrane. The whole mucous membrane with cardiac glands, diffuse lymphatic tissue and solitary lymphoid nodules in the lamina propria were found to cover the aggregated lymphoid nodule regions, but some nodules with a typical corona extended into the lamina propria and were covered with follicle-associated epithelium devoid of cardiac glands. These findings indicate that the stomach of the Bactrian camel possesses not only a special structure of digestion but also has characteristic immunological morphology.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Studies on the age of puberty of male camels (Camelus dromedaries) in Saudi Arabia.

Aspects of sexual development and attainment of sexual and breeding maturity were studied in two groups of Najdi camels (Mojaheem and Wadah), maintained in stalls under good nutritional conditions. Body weight, testes diameter and degree of penile freedom were recorded weekly. Sexual maturity was assessed by the examination of semen collected by an artificial vagina. Puberty was defined as the stage when the animal was able to produce viable sperms. Mating, followed by strong jerks and ejaculation of mature sperms, was taken to indicate onset of breeding maturity. Mojaheem camels reached sexual maturity at a significantly younger age and heavier weight (164 weeks and 360 kg) than Wadah camels (182 weeks and 336.5 kg) (P < 0.001). Complete separation of the penis from preputial adhesions occurred at an average age of 138.6 weeks in both breeds. At the point of sexual maturity, the mean percentage of live spermatozoa was 65.1 +/- 5.2 while percentage of abnormal sperms was 17.6 +/- 2.2; total motility was 40 +/- 16% and progressive motility (48 +/- 2.2% (semen pH range 7.8-8.2). The percentage of live sperm was 65 +/- 1.5 (normal sperms 82 +/- 4). It is suggested that the encouragement of rapid growth during the pubertal period in camels managed under good nutritional and environmental conditions could assist early sexual development and breeding maturity.

Aging↗
PubMed2002

Purification and partial characterization of camel (Camelus Dromedarius) ceruloplasmin.

Adult and young camel ceruloplasmin (Cp) were isolated and purified using the single-step chromatography on amino ethyl-activated sepharose. There are no differences between the adult and the young camel protein. The molecular mass of the protein, as estimated by SDS-PAGE (denaturant conditions), was approximately 130000 Da. The electrophoretic mobility of camel Cp is slightly higher as compared to human and sheep protein suggesting that the camel Cp is homogeneous, compact and more acid. The copper content was estimated to be 5.8+/-0.3 atoms per molecule. The spectroscopic feature includes an absorption maximum at 610 nm, which could be attributed to type 1 copper. The EPR spectrum was completely devoid of any typical signal of the type 2 copper. The kinetic parameters of the adult camel Cp for the specific activity as p-phenylendiamine oxidase were determined as K(m)=0.42 mM and V(max)=0.93 microM NADH/mn/mg Cp. The optimum pH for the activity was 5.7.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Studies on the supply of immunoglobulin G to newborn camel calves (Camelus dromedarius).

A major problem in camel productivity is the high mortality rate of camel calves in the first 3 months. The causes for mortality are mainly poor management practice and infectious diseases. The purpose of this research, carried out on a ranch in Kenya, was to determine the immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentration in camel colostrum as well as the extent of the calves' passive immunization by maternal antibodies. IgG concentration in colostrum and in the serum of the calf were measured during the first 3 d of life. Evaluation was carried out by comparing the respective values with those for horses and cattle. The average IgG concentration in the camel colostrum was higher than that found in literature for horses and cattle. IgG concentration in the serum of the camel calves reached its maximum 24 h after birth. In 39% of the examined calves, this maximum concentration was below 4 g/l, which is considered to be the critical value in horses and cattle. 61% of the calves achieved an IgG concentration of over 4 g/l. Since there is no correlation between IgG level in colostrum and early mortality, the results indicate that low colostrum intake during the first 24 h of life and not low IgG concentration in colostrum is presumably one of the main causes of early calf mortality. Therefore, it was recommended that the care of the newborn calves by herdsmen should be improved.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2006

Immunochemical quantification of heat denaturation of camel ( Camelus dromedarius ) whey proteins.

The major whey proteins IgG, serum albumin and alpha-lactalbumin were purified from camel milk using gel permeation and ion-exchange chromatography. Specific antisera against each of them were raised and used to quantify their heat denaturation in early or mature milk over a range of 60-90 degrees C for 10-60 min using the single radial immunodiffusion technique. The heat denaturation midpoints for the mature milk heated 30 min were 67.2, 73.0 and 77.5 degrees C for IgG, albumin and alpha-lactalbumin respectively. The early milk was more sensitive to heat treatment with coagulation at low temperature and heat denaturation midpoints of 64.8, 71.6 and 72.6 degrees C respectively. This difference was related to the high IgG content of the early milk (12.6 mg/ml v. 0.5 mg/ml for the mature milk) and stresses the importance of monitoring the IgG level of milk to assess the absence of colostrum.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Camel (Camelus dromedarius) immunoglobulin G, alpha-lactalbumin, serum albumin and lactoferrin in colostrum and milk during the early post partum period.

Colostrum and milk samples from twelve Tunisian camels were analysed for concentration of immunoglobulin G (IgG), alpha-lactalbumin (alpha-la), serum albumin (CSA) and lactoferrin throughout the first 14 milkings post partum (7 days of lactation) using single radial immunodiffusion assay. Concentrations (mg/ml, means+/-SD) at first milking were IgG, 100.7+/-60.4; alpha-la, 2.2+/-0.7; CSA, 8.5+/-3.6 and lactoferrin, 1.2+/-0.3. Large variations were recorded for IgG and CSA concentrations (11.8-211.1 mg/ml and 2.9-13.8 mg/ml respectively) Concentrations of IgG and CSA dropped abruptly in the subsequent milkings while alpha-la concentration increased until milking 5 and then decreased slowly. Lactoferrin dropped only from milking 7. Mean IgG concentrations were 3.6 and 2.5 mg/ml at milking 9 and 13 respectively. However, IgG concentration did not differ significantly, at the 1% level, from milkings 11 to 14. The contribution of CSA to the increase in whey proteins in early milks was greater than that described in the bovine and caprine species.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Prevalence of cystic echinococcosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Libya.

In an abattoir study, 514 camels, slaughtered for meat production in different areas of northern Libya were examined for the presence of cystic echinococcosis (CE). In addition, 367 sheep and 184 goats were examined. The overall prevalence of infection with CE was 48% in camels, 15.8% in sheep and 3.8% in goats. The infection rate, number and size of cysts were significantly higher in older camels. In six city abattoirs across northern Libya, i.e. Zawia, Tripoli, El-Khumes, Mesurata, Sirt and Benghazi, the prevalence rate of infection in camels ranged from 38.7% to 55.2%, in comparison with sheep and goat rates which were between 0% and 37.9% and 0% and 8.2%, respectively. In camels, the lungs were the most frequently infected organs (85.4%) with liver cysts occurring at a significantly lower rate (33%). In contrast, the liver was the predominant infected site with prevalence values of 86% and 100% in sheep and goats, respectively. More than 90% of camel hydatid cysts were fertile. The possible role of camels in the transmission of CE in Libya is discussed.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed1984

Onchocerciasis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi Arabia.

During a survey in 1980-81, 125 of 478 (26.2%) camels in Saudi Arabia were found infected with onchocerciasis. The prevalence rates in local and imported camels were 93/272 (34.2%) and 32/206 (15.5%), respectively. The disease was characterized by hard nodules in the connective tissue around the nuchal ligaments and in the subcutis. The nodules consisted of cavities containing live, degenerate or dead Onchocerca fasciata, inflammatory cells, fibrosis and calcification. The microfilariae were concentrated in the skin over the head and neck regions and often caused mild non-suppurative dermatitis.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Evaluation of enzyme immunoassays in the diagnosis of camel (Camelus dromedarius) trypanosomiasis: a preliminary investigation.

Three enzyme immunoassays were used for the serodiagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in camels in the Sudan in order to evaluate their ability to discriminate between infected and non-infected animals. Two assays were used for the detection of trypanosomal antibodies, one using specific anti-camel IgG conjugate and another using a non-specific Protein A conjugate. The third assay detected the presence of trypanosomal antigens using anti-T. evansi antibodies in a double antibody sandwich assay. Inspection of the frequency distribution of assay results suggested that the ELISA for circulating trypanosomal antibodies using specific antisera and the ELISA for circulating antigens can distinguish between non-infected camels and infected camels exhibiting patent infections or not. The ELISA using Protein A conjugate to bind non-specifically to camel immunoglobulin did not appear to discriminate between infected and non-infected animals.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

The arterial supply of the metacarpophalangeal joint in the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus).

The arterial supply of the six metacarpophalangeal joints was studied in Bactrian camels. The arterial branches supplying the metacarpophalangeal joints were derived from the metacarpal distal perforating, medial and lateral branches of the palmar metacarpal artery III, medial and lateral branches of the palmar common digital artery III and the abaxial palmar proper digital arteries III and IV. These arterial branches were the proximal dorsoaxial distal metacarpal, distal dorsoaxial distal metacarpal, abaxial distal metacarpal, palmar distal metacarpal, interosseous distal metacarpal, dorsoaxial proximal proximal phalangeal, palmoxial proximal proximal phalangeal, palmoabaxial proximal proximal phalangeal and dorsoabaxial proximal proximal phalangeal branches. They linked with each other around the metacarpophalangeal joint.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

The arterial supply of the cubital joint in the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus).

The arterial supply of the six cubital joints from bactrian camels was studied. There were 15 arterial branches supplying the joint. The branches that arose from the transverse cubital artery were the medial anterior, superior anterior, lateral anterior, middle anterior, inferior anterior, superior lateral, middle lateral, inferior lateral, superior posterior and superior lateral posterior cubital branches. The branches originating from the collateral ulnar artery were the medial, middle posterior, inferior posterior, medial posterior and inferior lateral posterior cubital branches. These arteries united with each other around the cubital joint.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

The arterial supply of the carpal joint in the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus).

The arterial supply of the six carpal joints was studied in Bactrian camels. The arterial branches supplying the carpal joints were the proximal medial dorsal, middle medial dorsal, distal medial dorsal, proximal lateral dorsal, distal lateral dorsal, proximal medial palmar, distal medial palmar, lateral palmar, proximal palmar and dorsal palmar carpi and the dorsal interosseous antebrachium branches. Some small unnamed branches supplied the diverticulum and the antebrachiocarpal joint capsule. All these arteries arose from the lateral and medial branches of the radial artery.

Animals↗