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PubMed1998

The composition of NF-defined emulsifiers: sorbitan monolaurate, monopalmitate, monostearate, monooleate, polysorbate 20, polysorbate 40, polysorbate 60, and polysorbate 80.

Using the analytical constants for sorbitan monolaurate, monopalmitate, monostearate, and monooleate given in the National Formulary (NF), calculations were carried out that indicated that these emulsifiers are esters of sorbitol mono- and dianhydrides. Contrary to the NF description, no significant amount of sorbitol ester was calculated to be present, in agreement with recent experimental findings. Further calculations were made using the NF-defined analytical constants of polysorbate 20, polysorbate 40, polysorbate 60, and polysorbate 80, which indicate that these emulsifiers are esters primarily of polyoxyethylated sorbitol monoanhydride (i.e., sorbitan), with lesser quantities of polyoxyethylated esters of sorbitol dianhydride. Since all hydroxyl groups of the polysorbates are primary, random distribution of acyl groups on the available hydroxyls can be assumed, and the likely composition of these emulsifiers can be calculated. The most abundant compounds appear to be polyoxyethylated sorbitan mono-, di-, and triesters. Although the polysorbates are stated to contain 20 moles of ethylene oxide per mole of ester, the oxyethylene contents stated in the Food Chemicals Codex reveal that somewhat more than 20 moles of ethylene oxide are combined.

Chemistry, Pharmaceutical↗

PubMed2004

An evaluation of residual organochlorine pesticides in popular Indian herbal teas.

Herbal preparations are gaining popularity worldwide because of their history of use and the belief that they are free of harmful side effects. Among the most popular products are herbal teas, which are marketed extensively with emphasis on their medicinal properties. At the same time, the World Health Organization has been emphasizing the need for quality assurance of herbal products, including testing for inadvertent contamination. The authors conducted a quality-assurance evaluation of residual organochlorine pesticides in some popular brands of Indian herbal teas. Organochlorine pesticide residue build-up from agricultural or storage practices was estimated with gas-liquid chromatography. The results revealed scant presence of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) or its metabolites; endosulfan--a highly toxic pesticide--was absent in all 8 brands of herbal teas studied. Hexachlorocyclohexane isomers were detected in 2 samples, but levels were below the permissible limit for pesticide residue in foods, as promulgated by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The authors believe that all herbal preparations should be checked for toxic chemical residues to allay consumer fears of exposure to known neurotoxicant pesticides and to aid in promoting global acceptance of these products.

Community Participation↗

PubMed2000

Software for recording observational files.

We offer the new software Codex, written in Visual Basic 3.0. It is a tool adequate in observational methodology. Its fundamental objective is to record motor and verbal behavior using the data types proposed by Bakeman and Quera (1995, 1996), together with the field formats proposed by Hall (1963), Weick (1968), Hutt and Hutt (1974), and Anguera (1979). It is designed to allow for data interchange between specific programs in use in observational methodology (SDIS-GSEQ, The Observer, and Theme) and other general programs (spread sheets, statistics applications, word processing programs, sound cards, etc.).

Behavior↗

PubMed2001

A rapid assay for detecting sulfonamides in tissues of slaughtered animals.

Governments regulate antimicrobial residues in slaughtered animals with surveillance programs for detecting drugs in food-producing animals. Although initial screening bioassay systems are recognized for their sensitivities to antimicrobial drug groups, none are sensitive to sulfonamides at or near the maximum residue levels (MRLs) in the Codex Alimentarious. We have developed a sulfonamide-sensitive rapid assay using Bacillus stearothermophilus inoculated PM indicator agar containing bromcresol purple and trimethoprim, where the end point is a combination of color change in the agar and zone of microbial growth inhibition around the sampling disk. Five sulfonamides, plus 16 other antimicrobial drugs were tested in standard concentrations in water, bovine kidney, and ground beef. Sulfonamides were detected at concentrations near the MRLs, and they were presumptively identified using para-aminobenzoic acid. The rapid assay was extremely sensitive to beta-lactams that were presumptively identified using penase. The system also was sensitive to tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, and macrolides, of which tetracyclines and gentamicin were identified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In trials on slaughterhouse tissues submitted for testing in Ontario's meat surveillance program, the rapid assay identified twofold the number of positive kidneys and threefold the number of positive diaphragm samples compared to a standard microbiological inhibition test (MIT) currently approved. Fifty-three of 471 carcasses were sulfonamide positive with the rapid assay, while no sulfonamides were detected with the MIT. ELISA and thin-layer chromatography were used on selected samples to confirm the rapid assay sulfonamide presumptive results.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Factors contributing to the occurrence of antimicrobial drug residues in Kenyan milk.

The study investigated factors contributing to the occurrence of antimicrobial drug residues in milk within four major milk production districts in Kenya. The frequency of contamination was studied among small- and large-scale dairy producers to determine if there were differences between the two types of producers. Field samples (n = 1,600) were analyzed with the improved Dutch tube diffusion test, a microbial inhibitor test (Bacillus stearothermophilus). In total, 144 and 64 samples from small- and large-scale producers, respectively, were found to contain beta-lactam antibiotics at levels exceeding the established Codex maximum residue level for penicillin G (4 microg/kg). The difference in results between the two categories of producers was found to be significant (P < 0.001). To explain the higher frequency of antibiotic contamination of milk from small-scale producers, a questionnaire was constructed and used with 220 randomly selected smallholders in the selected districts. The results suggested (i) lack of understanding of risks related to antibiotic contamination of food, (ii) poor or no treatment records, and (iii) lack of a monitoring system as major risks for contamination. It was concluded that intensification of the education among small-scale dairy producers would greatly reduce the occurrence of antimicrobial residues in milk.

Animals↗

PubMed1976

Some problems concerning the assay of Clostridium chauvoei vaccine in laboratory animals.

The potency test prescribed for Cl. chauvoei vaccines in the British Veterinary Codex requires the complete survival of a group of immunized guinea pigs and death of all unvaccinated controls. Problems arising from the influence of extraneous factors such as animal strain, diet and seasonal variation on the outcome of this test are discussed together with alternative methods that might permit the use of a standard preparation.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Food safety in international trade.

International approaches are indispensable in the management of foodborne risks to health. The contributions made by WHO and the World Trade Organization to achieving food safety are discussed below, and particular reference is made to the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and to the work of the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

Commerce↗

PubMed1999

Regulation of food and drugs in the Philippines.

The regulation of food and drugs in the Republic of the Philippines is enshrined in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Statutory laws are also in place providing legal basis for the creation of a regulatory agency, the Bureau of Food and Drugs, mandated to ensure the safety, efficacy and good quality of all food and drug products being made available to the general public. The most important of these laws are Republic Act (RA) 3720 "Foods, Drugs, Medical Devices and Cosmetics Act", RA 6675 "Generics Act", RA 8203 "Act Prohibiting Counterfeit Drugs", and RA 7394 "Consumers Act." Regulation is achieved through inspection and licensing of food and drug establishments, registration and market monitoring of products, approval of product label prior to marketing, and approval and monitoring of promotions and advertisements. International standards and guidelines such as those recommended by the WHO, USP or BP, FAO and Codex Alimentarius are used as a basis in the formulation and implementation of rules and regulations governing the manufacture, importation, exportation, distribution, or sale of food and drugs. Compliance with the requirements of good manufacturing practice is the basis criterion for licensing food and drug establishments, while safety, efficacy and good quality are the criteria for registration of products. Although cigarettes are not regarded as food or drug, the labeling and promotion of such is being regulated by the Bureau because of the hazard posed to public health.

Drug and Narcotic Control↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Monitoring pesticide residues in Egyptian fruits and vegetables in 1995.

Organophosphorus, dithiocarbamates, and some synthetic pyrethroids pesticides, which are commonly used in Egypt for pest control, were monitored, as well as persistent organochlorines, which had been prohibited from use several years ago. Fruit and vegetable samples (397) were collected from 8 local markets and examined for 52 pesticides. Of all analyzed samples, 42.8% contained detectable residues, of which 1.76% exceeded their maximum residue limits (MRLs). The rates of contamination with the different pesticides were 0-86%. However, violation rates among contaminated products were very low, ranging from 0 to 4.6%. In general, organochlorine pesticide residues were not detected in most samples. Dithiocarbamate residues were found in 70.4% of 98 samples analyzed for dithiocarbamates, but only one grape sample had residues exceeding the MRL established by the Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues.

Carbamates↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Nomenclature of obligate methylotrophs].

The nomenclature of obligate methylotrophs, i. e. bacteria using only reduced monocarbon compounds (methane, methanol, methylamines) as a carbon source, is dicussed. The chronology of naming taxons of methane oxidizing bacteria is presented and the rightfulness of their names is analyzed according to the rules of the International Codex of Bacterial Nomenclature. Such names as Methylomonas and others which are employed while describing various physiological groups of bacteria are used in the nomenclature of obligate methylotrophs, and this may be the source of errors. Therefore, only the genus of methane oxidizing bacteria should be referred to as Methylomonas whereas obligate methanol and methylamine assimilating bacteria should be classed as individual genera. The described species of methane oxidizing bacteria can be included into the genera Methylomonas, Methylococcus, Methylosinus, and Methylocystis. One should avoid such names as Methanomonas margaritae, Methanomonas immobilis, Pseudomonas methanica etc. since they do not possess the nomenclature status. All bacteria that depend obligatorily on the presence of reduced C1-compounds should be included into the family Methylomonadaceae. The taxonomy and nomenclature of facultative methylotrophs must be based on principles accepted for other organotrophic microorganisms as it has been suggested at the II International Symposium on the Growth of Microorganisms on C1-compounds (Pushchino, USSR, 1977).

Methylococcaceae↗

PubMed1998

[Ethical guiding principles for veterinary behaviour with respect to the welfare and protection of animals]

Preamble: The veterinary profession regulation describes veterinary surgeons as being the appointed protectors of animals. In accordance with this principle, the "Veterinary Association for the protection of Animals" has put together some guidelines to assist members of the veterinary profession in their work with respect to the welfare and protection of animals. This issue of the "Codex veterinarius" is not a description of the present situation. It is rather meant to be a guide for the future, to be understood as a self-binding commitment. All members of the veterinary profession must, due to their specific knowledge, be committed to improve and enhance the protection of animals. When in doubt they should decide in favour of the animal, which, however, does not imply a higher ranking of animals. Veterinary surgeons should not assist in intensifying the productive use of animals out of purely economical interests, without taking on the ethical responsibility for the animal as a living creature, capable of suffering. The "Veterinary Association for the Protection of Animals" calls upon all veterinary surgeons to adopt the hereby described principles. Principles: Veterinary surgeons have a particular ethical responsibility for animals as living beings able to suffer. Veterinary action for the welfare and protection of animals is guided by the principle of respect for life and the awareness that the animal has a dignity which is to be respected. Therefore protection and care for an animal can not be dependent on its economical value. In situations of diverting interests between moral obligations and economical pressure it is essential to consider carefully the respect for life against the productive use of life in all its forms of existence. The ethical concept of justice for human beings as well as for animals requires that equal entities, according to their equality, are to be valued and treated equally, and unequal entities according to their inequality are to be valued and treated differently (principle of equality). Considering carefully the opposing interests and needs, the interests of the human being should not automatically be considered to be more important than those of the animal. Prior to any interference with the physical and psychological integrity of the animal the veterinary surgeon has to question herself/himself to which extent her/his intervention is morally justified. When in doubt veterinary surgeons should let themselves be guided by the principle: In dubio pro animale!

Journal Article↗

PubMed2000

International trade. Multinational aspects.

Of numerous regional economic agreements, the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), South American Common Market (MERCOSUR), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Agreement are examples that are actively pursuing regional integration for freer trade of animals and animal products. The World Trade Organization (WTO) believes that regional and multinational integration initiatives are complements rather than alternatives in the pursuit of more open trade. In the efforts to harmonize SPS standards among multilateral trading nations, it is recommended that national requirements meet the standards developed by the OIE and the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission as the minimum requirements rather than adopting the standards of the lowest common denominator. Regional grouping may hinder multilateral or bilateral trade between the countries of a group and those of the other groups. How to eliminate such non-tariff barriers as traditional trade custom remains to be examined. Ongoing activities of VICH (Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Veterinary Medical Products) may pave the way for more open trade in pharmaceutical products between multilateral regional groups.

Animal Welfare↗

PubMed2001

[Ethics of working with DNA in health care].

The reasoning on DNA as a biological sample of the particular status is based on the author's experience with DNA isolation, analysis and interpretation of genotyping results. The author discusses the nature of the information contained in DNA molecule, he specifies who uses this information and in what way the information is or should be used. The different standpoints concerning the ethical codex of patient's rights versus DNA handling are stressed.

Databases, Factual↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Euthanasia].

The paper gives a historical overview, and describes psychosociological constellation and tactics of the euthanasia movement. Further, medicosocial experiment and medicolegal engineering which preceded it and followed it are presented on the example of euthanasia in The Netherlands. Legal, ethical, formally logical and psychological arguments against euthanasia are presented. The article concludes with the opinion that it was the duty of the World Medical Association to protect medical profession with the procedure of demedicalization of euthanasia, and to appropriately punish the Royal Dutch Medical Society for breaking professional ethical codex in its essential part, which is the basis of the very identity of medical profession.

Ethics, Medical↗

PubMed2001

[Global aspects of medical ethics: conditions and possibilities].

A global or universal code of medical ethics seems paradoxical in the era of pluralism and postmodernism. A different conception of globalisation will be developed in terms of a "procedural universality". According to this philosophical concept, a code of medical ethics does not oblige physicians to accept certain specific, preset, universal values and rules. It rather obliges every culture and society to start a culture-sensitive, continuous, and active discourse on specific issues, mentioned in the codex. This procedure might result in regional, intra-cultural consensus, which should be presented to an inter-cultural dialogue. To exemplify this procedure, current topics of medical ethics (spiritual foundations of medicine, autonomy, definitions concerning life and death, physicians' duties, conduct within therapeutic teams) will be discussed from the point of view of western medicine.

Cross-Cultural Comparison↗

PubMed2001

Practical approaches to risk assessment.

The importance of using risk assessment in developing food regulations is growing with the globalization of our food supply. The World Trade Organization has entrenched the principles of science-based risk assessment in the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. The relevant international organization for food standards, the Codex Alimentarius Commission, recognises risk analysis, and its component parts risk assessment, risk management and risk communication, as the basis for scientific decision-making. Risk assessment comprises two activities: hazard evaluation; and exposure estimation. A hazard may be chemical, microbiological or nutritional in origin. The practical application of risk assessment in Australia is illustrated in this presentation by four examples involving: (1) food additives, (2) microbiological safety of imported raw milk cheeses, (3) genetically modified foods and (4) imported food inspection.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

[Julien-Francois Jeannel (1814-1896). A "Prothee", or a singular military pharmacist officer].

Military pharmacist officer since 1838, Julien Jeannel studied medicine too (1838 Class). During the algerian campaign (1840), surrounded inside Medea, he slaughtered the whole part of sick animals to cook up bubbles next changed into stock cubes (Never patented!). Nominated in Toulouse and further in Bordeaux, he wrote many books about worker's medicine, anaesthesia, suicide, syphilis, prostitution as well as a french Codex the Army used until 1918. In 1858, he set up the A.G.M.F. (French General Practitioner's Association). He enlarged the purpose of cultural gardens and promoted reforestation,. Imperial Guard Field-officer during the 1870-71 War, he was among the Metz besieged; there, he contrived a gadget: small hydrogen balloons carrying letters - a king of "air mail"! After retiring, he founded with Ferau and Papillion the Lille Free Medical University. Then he ended his life at Villefranche sur Mer, devoted to botany and natural sciences; he published "Les Fables de La Fontaine" meant for young people.

France↗

PubMed1999

[The Pharmacopee de Nancy from Francois Mandel].

Expected by the apothecaries since 1624, this pharmacopoeia, written in Latin in 1790, is published in 1795 with french translation face to face. New chemical nomenclature and partly new names for preparations give it new look, simpler than Codex of Paris 1758. Nevertheless, its impact on pharmaceutical practice was insignificant.

France↗