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PubMed1981

Nutritional role of chromium.

Chromium is an essential trace element required for normal carbohydrate metabolism. The biological function of chromium is closely associated with that of insulin and most chromium-stimulated reactions are also insulin dependent. Proper chromium nutrition leads to a decreased requirement for insulin and also an improved blood lipid profile. Most fresh foods and minimally processed foods are good sources of dietary chromium. Inorganic chromium does not potentiate insulin action and must be converted to an organic biologically active form. An organic form of chromium capable of potentiating insulin has been isolated from brewer's yeast and was shown to contain: Cr, nicotinic acid and a combination of amino acids. Synthetic insulin potentiating organic chromium complexes containing chromium, nicotinic acid, glycine, cysteine, and glutamic acid or chromium, nicotinic acid and glutathione have been prepared. These complexes have not been purified to homogeneity since they dissociate during purification. Suitable analytical bioassays are available to measure total chromium and the organic biologically-active forms of chromium, respectively.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Effects derived from long-term low-level chromium exposure in ferro-alloy metallurgy. Study of absorption and renal function in workers.

Ferro-chromium production is based on the use of chromium oxide (III) and it is generally accepted that chromium in this form is not able to cross biological barriers. However, the data on the toxic and carcinogenic effects of hexavalent chromium in man are now firmly established. Some studies have questioned these data, calling for a clarification as to whether exposure to trivalent chromium can also produce human effects, perhaps with different latency time. A study was carried out on the exposure conditions (type and degree) in a ferro-chromium foundry that had been in operation since 1972. The absorption levels in the working population of the foundry, and the possible toxic effects on the kidney have been investigated. A total of 236 workers (142 employed in production departments, 33 office workers and 61 sub-contractor employees) were examined with measurement of the indicators of dose (urinary-chromium) and of effect on the kidney (albumin, retinol binding protein, and renal tubular epithelium antigens in the urine). Environmental hygiene measurements showed relatively low values of total chromium in the air (always less than 0.160 mg/m3). Hexavalent chromium was absent or, if present, at levels below the sensitivity of the analytical method used (0.001 mg/m3). The values of urinary chromium measured at the beginning and at the end of the working day and at the end of the work shift were always less than 5 micrograms/g creatinine, which has been proposed as a biological limit in chromium exposure. However, differences were observed between groups of subjects employed on different jobs, which is indicative of an absorption process varying according to the degree of exposure. The indicators of effect did not reveal any renal impairment, even early, that could be attributed to the toxic action of chromium.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Long-term exposure of male and female mice to trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds: effect on fertility.

Sexually mature male and female mice at 50 days of age were exposed to trivalent (Chromium chloride) or hexavalent (potassium dichromate) chromium compounds in drinking water for 12 weeks. The effects of the direct chromium exposure on fertility was assessed at day 140 of age. Fertility was significantly reduced in males exposed to the trivalent chromium compound. The number of implantation sites and the number of viable fetuses was significantly reduced in females impregnated by males exposed to the hexavalent chromium compound. The number of resorptions and dead fetuses was increased in females impregnated by males exposed to trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds. The exposure of female mice to trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds significantly reduced the number of implantation sites and the number of viable fetuses. The number of females with resorptions was significantly increased in hexavalent chromium exposed females. The number of resorptions was increased in trivalent and hexavalent exposed females. Body, seminal vesicles and preputial gland weights were significantly reduced in males exposed to trivalent and hexavalent chromium, whereas testes weight was significantly increased in males exposed to these compounds. Furthermore, ovarian weight was significantly increased in females exposed to trivalent and hexavalent chromium, whereas uterine weight was significantly decreased in trivalent chromium exposed females. In conclusion, the ingestion of trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds by adult male and female mice would cause adverse effects on fertility and reproduction.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Ferrate treatment for removing chromium from high-level radioactive tank waste.

A method has been developed for removing chromium from alkaline high-level radioactive tank waste. Removing chromium from these wastes is critical in reducing the volume of waste requiring expensive immobilization and deep geologic disposition. The method developed is based on the oxidation of insoluble chromium(III) compounds to soluble chromate using ferrate. This method could be generally applicable to removing chromium from chromium-contaminated solids, when coupled with a subsequent reduction of the separated chromate back to chromium(III). The tests conducted with a simulated Hanford tank sludge indicate that the chromium removal with ferrate is more efficient at 5 M NaOH than at 3 M NaOH. Chromium removal increases with increasing Fe(VI)/Cr(II) molar ratio, but the chromium removal tends to level out for Fe(VI)/ Cr(III) greaterthan 10. Increasingtemperature leadsto better chromium removal, but higher temperatures also led to more rapid ferrate decomposition. Tests with radioactive Hanford tank waste generally confirmed the simulant results. In all cases examined, ferrate enhanced the chromium removal, with a typical removal of around 60-70% of the total chromium present in the washed sludge solids. The ferrate leachate solutions did not contain significant concentrations of transuranic elements, so these solutions could be disposed as low-activity waste.

Chromium↗
PubMed1999

Reversal of corticosteroid-induced diabetes mellitus with supplemental chromium.

AIMS: To determine if the stress of corticosteroid treatment increases chromium (Cr) losses and if corticosteroid-induced diabetes (steroid diabetes) can be reversed by supplemental chromium. METHODS: The effects of corticosteroid treatment on chromium losses of 13 patients 2 days prior to steroid administration and the first 3 days following treatment were determined. Since steroid-induced diabetes was associated with increased chromium losses and insufficient dietary chromium is associated with glucose intolerance and diabetes, we treated three patients with steroid-induced diabetes with 600 microg per day of chromium as chromium picolinate. RESULTS: Urinary chromium losses following corticosteroid treatment increased from 155+/-28 ng/d before corticosteroid treatment to 244+/-33 ng/d in the first 3 days following treatment. Chromium supplementation of patients with steroid-induced diabetes resulted in decreases in fasting blood glucose values from greater than 13.9 mmol/l (250 mg/dl) to less than 8.3 mmol/l (150 mg/dl). Hypoglycaemic drugs were also reduced 50% in all patients when given supplemental chromium. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate that corticosteroid treatment increases chromium losses and that steroid-induced diabetes can be reversed by chromium supplementation. Follow-up, double-blind studies are needed to confirm these observations.

Adrenal Cortex Hormones↗
PubMed2001

Serum chromium does not predict glucose tolerance in late pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Chromium is an essential element in human nutrition. Serum concentrations of chromium are not well characterized during pregnancy or in gestational diabetes mellitus. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine whether low plasma chromium concentrations (< or =3 nmol/L) are associated with altered glucose, insulin, or lipid concentrations during pregnancy. DESIGN: The study was conducted prospectively and took place at the medical obstetric clinic of a tertiary referral hospital. Seventy-nine women with abnormal results of a 50-g glucose challenge test in the third trimester of pregnancy were studied. All women had a formal 75-g oral-glucose-tolerance test, and fasting insulin, lipid, and chromium concentrations were determined. Chromium was measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. RESULTS: The median chromium concentration was 2 nmol/L (95% CI: 0, 12). There were no significant differences in age, plasma glucose, insulin, lipids, calculated insulin resistance, or calculated ss cell function between women with normal and those with abnormal (< or =3 nmol/L) chromium concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Plasma chromium during pregnancy does not correlate with glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, or serum lipids. Plasma chromium concentrations may not accurately reflect tissue stores of chromium. Several trials showed a beneficial effect of chromium supplementation on glucose tolerance, insulin, and lipids. A method for assessing body chromium stores is required to allow further study.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Effects of exercise on chromium levels. Is supplementation required?

It is estimated that most individuals are not ingesting sufficient amounts of chromium in their diets. Although there is little information on chromium intake in athletes, many athletes ingest more calories than do non-athletes so their chromium intake should be adequate. However, athletes who restrict calories to maintain low bodyweights could compromise their chromium status. Some evidence also shows that exercise may increase chromium loss into the urine. At present, it is not known whether this loss necessitates additional chromium in the diet or whether the body will increase retention in response to the loss. Chromium deficiency is thought to contribute to glucose intolerance and unhealthy blood lipid profiles. The primary function of chromium is to potentiate the effects of insulin, and thereby alter glucose, amino acid and fat metabolism. Chromium supplements have been purported to increase muscle mass and decrease body fat. However, the preponderance of evidence has not supported this claim. There is little information available on the long term use of chromium supplements, but at present, supplements within the Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Allowance (ESADDI) level do not appear harmful. The prudent course of action for athletes would be to ingest foods rich in chromium and perhaps take a multivitamin/mineral supplement containing no more than the ESADDI of chromium.

Chromium↗
PubMed2000

Effect of chromium supplementation on glucose tolerance and lipid profile.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate chromium status of the adult population in the western region of Saudi Arabia and the possibility of using serum chromium status measurement as indicator of this status. METHODS: The effect of chromium supplement on glucose tolerance and lipid profile was studied in 44 normal, free living adults. 200mg chromium/day as CrCL3 or a placebo was given in a double blind cross-over study, with 8 weeks experimental periods. Fasting, 1 hour and 2 hour post glucose challenge (75 g of glucose) glucose, serum fructosamine, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, triglycerides, chromium and dietary intakes were estimated at the beginning and the end of each stage. RESULTS: Mean serum chromium increased significantly after supplement (P<.001) indicating proper absorption of the element. Supplement did not effect the total cholesterol, however, the mean high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol level was significantly increased (P<.001), the mean triglycerides levels significantly decreased (P<.001), and the mean fructosamine level significantly decreased (P<.05). In addition, chromium supplement effected 1 hour and 2 hour post glucose challenge glucose levels in subgroups of subjects with 2 hour glucose level > 10% above or below fasting level and significantly differing to it (P<.05 in both cases), by decreasing or increasing them significantly (P<.05 in all cases) so that the 2 hour mean became not significantly different to the fasting mean. Since no significant changes in weight, dietary intake or habits were found, and placebo had no effect, all noted biochemical changes were attributed to chromium. CONCLUSION: Improved glucose control, and lipid profile following chromium supplement suggests the presence of low chromium status in the studied population. However, serum chromium could not be recommended for use as an indicator of chromium status as subjects with widely varying levels responded favorably to the chromium supplement.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

A scientific review: the role of chromium in insulin resistance.

Chromium is an essential mineral that appears to have a beneficial role in the regulation of insulin action and its effects on carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism. Chromium is an important factor for enhancing insulin activity. Studies show that people with type 2 diabetes have lower blood levels of chromium than those without the disease. Insulin resistance is the common denominator in a cluster of cardiovascular disease risk factors. One out of every five Americans has metabolic syndrome. It affects 40% of people in their 60s and 70s. Insulin resistance, with or without the presence of metabolic syndrome, significantly increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. Insulin resistance is present in two serious health problems in women; polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and gestational diabetes. Several studies have now demonstrated that chromium supplements enhance the metabolic action of insulin and lower some of the risk factors for cardiovascular disease, particularly in overweight individuals. Chromium picolinate, specifically, has been shown to reduce insulin resistance and to help reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Dietary chromium is poorly absorbed. Chromium levels decrease with age. Supplements containing 200-1,000 mcg chromium as chromium picolinate a day have been found to improve blood glucose control. Chromium picolinate is the most efficacious form of chromium supplementation. Numerous animal studies and human clinical trials have demonstrated that chromium picolinate supplements are safe.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Effects of different chromium compounds on blood pressure and lipid peroxidation in spontaneously hypertensive rats.

In a previous study, we found that oral chromium nicotinate overcame sucrose-induced hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Accordingly, we examined more chromium compounds to determine if others were more or less effective in regulating blood pressure (BP) of SHR. Since chromium is postulated to be an antioxidant, we also assessed the ability of different chromium compounds to alter free radical formation measured by determining thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). The control group of SHR ingested a diet low in chromium, and 5 other groups ate the same diet with various chromium compounds added at 5 ppm-chloride, acetate, nicotinic acid-glycine-cysteine-glutamic acid (NA-AA), picolinate, and nicotinate. Following this, the rats were challenged with drinking water containing 5% and 10% w/v sucrose. Except for NA-AA, all chromium compounds inhibited the sucrose-induced elevation of systolic BP; and acetate, picolinate, and nicotinate chromium compounds lowered HbAIC below control. Only chromium acetate and nicotinate significantly lowered both hepatic and renal TBARS. Chromium picolinate lowered hepatic TBARS, and chromium chloride and NA-AA lowered neither. We conclude that chromium, rather than a specific ligand, plays a major role in ameliorating sucrose-induced BP elevations and can act as an antioxidant.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Carcinogenicity of sodium dichromate and chromium (VI/III) oxide aerosols inhaled by male Wistar rats.

In inhalation chambers, male Wistar rats of the strain TNO-W74 were continuously exposed to submicron aerosols of sodium dichromate and to a pyrolyzed Cr(VI)/Cr(III) (3:2) oxide mixture. The sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7) aerosol had the chromium concentrations of 25, 50 and 100 micrograms/m3, the chromium oxide mixture (Cr5O12) had the chromium concentration of 100 micrograms/m3. After 18 months of inhalation the rats were held under conventional conditions for a further year. The experimental groups consisted of 20 rats and the control group of 40 rats. More than 90% of the rats in each group reached 2 years. At the end of the study the mortality rates amounted to 35%, 45% and 25% in the 3 sodium dichromate aerosol groups, respectively, and 50% in the chromium oxide mixture aerosol group, which was not significantly different from that of the controls (42.5%), living under the same conditions in filtered fresh air. In all sodium dichromate exposed groups significant effects were neither found clinically nor from hematology and clinical chemistry compared to the controls. In the chromium oxide mixture group, however, there was a number of significant findings. Elevated white and red blood cell counts and serum cholesterol as well as decreased serum total immunoglobulin levels at different stages of the study were observed together with few local lung effects determined histopathologically in this group. We assume that these effects are mainly due to the increased chromium lung burden of the rats. At the end of the study the lung chromium retention was about 10 times higher for the rats exposed to chromium oxide versus sodium dichromate at an aerosol Cr-concentration of 100 micrograms/m3, while the kidney chromium retention was measured to be nearly equal in both groups. Three primary lung tumors (2 adenomas and 1 adenocarcinoma) and 1 malign tumor of the pharynx were found at the highest Cr-concentration (100 micrograms/m3) of the sodium dichromate aerosol, 1 primary adenoma of the lung was in the chromium oxide mixture group exposed also to a Cr-concentration of 100 micrograms/m3. No primary lung tumors were observed in the other experimental and control groups. These results indicate a weak carcinogenicity at 100 micrograms/m3 for the rats continuously exposed to submicron Na2Cr2O7 and Cr5O12 aerosols. Thus, there may be a small carcinogenic risk from occupational relevant chromium air levels. However, results have to be confirmed with larger animal populations.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed2002

The safety and efficacy of high-dose chromium.

The data on the standards for chromium requirements and the safety of various chromium compounds and doses are reviewed. The 350-fold difference between the acceptable daily intake and the calculated reference dose for humans of 70 mg per day seems without precedent with respect to other nutritional minerals. Previous claims of mutagenic effects of chromium are of questionable relevance. While studies have found DNA fragmentation (clastogenic effects) by chromium picolinate, anecdotal reports of high-dose chromium picolinate toxicity are few and ambiguous. The beneficial effects of chromium on serum glucose and lipids and insulin resistance occur even in the healthy. Serum glucose can be improved by chromium supplementation in both types 1 and 2 diabetes, and the effect appears dose dependent. Relative absorption of various chromium compounds is summarized and the mechanism of low molecular weight chromium binding substance (LMWCr) in up-regulating the insulin effect eight-fold is discussed. There is evidence of hormonal effects of supplemental chromium besides the effect on insulin. Chromium supplementation does result in tissue retention, especially in the kidney, although no pathogenic effect has been demonstrated despite considerable study.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Permeability of physiological barriers for chromium and its balance in the body when administered with water or food].

In experiments set up on albino male-rats by using Cr51 the permeability of physiological barriers to hexad stable chromium (sodium chromate), introduced with water per os in doses of 2.5 and 2250 gamma/kg was studied and the chromium balance in the rats' organism with an addition of the same doses of trivalent (chromium sulfide) chromium to the ration investigated. With all the tested additions of stable hexad chromium in water Cr51 is prevalently retained in the stomach and intestines. With an addition of 2.5 gamma/kg of stable chromium to the ration and without chromium addition to the ration it is only 7.8--9.5 per cent of the introduced Cr51 that is excreted in 4 days, the respective figures with additions of 24 gamma/kg and 2250 gamma/kg being 59.7 and 54.5 per cent. An addition of 2.5 gamma/kg of chromium to the ration is physiologically justified, for with this dose the retention in the barriers and excretion of chromium with this dose do not increase, whereas higher doses of tri- and hexavalent chromium are non-physiological, since with these doses the retention of chromium by physiological barriers sharply increases and so doses its elimination from the organism.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Microscopic analysis of chromium accumulation in the bronchi and lung of chromate workers.

BACKGROUND: It is known that chromium is an inhaled carcinogen and an important risk factor in the development of lung carcinoma. METHODS: The authors used a microscopic X-ray fluorescence analyzer with transmitted X-ray mapping imaging (Horiba, Kyoto, Japan) to measure the accumulation of chromium in 10 resected lung tissue specimens and 90 biopsy specimens from chromate workers. RESULTS: The maximum chromium accumulation (mean +/- standard deviation) in 10 resected lung tissue specimens was 197 +/- 238 counts per second (cps)/mili ampere (mA) (range, 4-649 cps/mA). Chromium accumulation was scattered in six tissue specimens and diffuse in one specimen. Chromium accumulation in the proximal bronchi was less than in the bronchioles or subpleural regions of the lung. Chromium accumulation was detectable in 63 (70%) of 90 biopsy specimens, and the mean accumulation was 6.5 +/- 9.2 cps/mA (range, 0-46.5 cps/mA). Chromium detected in bronchial tissue specimens was deposited in the bronchial stroma but not in the epithelium. The maximum chromium accumulations in dysplasic (n = 3), squamous metaplastic (n = 10), and normal bronchial epithelia (n = 9) in chromate workers and in normal bronchial epithelia (n = 3) in non-chromate workers were 20.2 +/- 5.4, 18.3 +/- 12.2, 13.2 +/- 13.4, and 3.0 +/- 1.8 cps/mA, respectively. The amount of chromium accumulation significantly increased according to the progression of malignant change of the bronchial epithelium (P = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Previous studies found that lung carcinoma with chromate exposure exhibited a variety of genetic abnormalities. Considering genetic aberrations and chromium accumulation in these premalignant lesions is useful for elucidating the process of carcinogenesis in chromium-induced lung carcinoma.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Influence of o-phenanthroline on DNA single-strand breaks, alkali-labile sites, glutathione reductase, and formation of chromium(V) in Chinese hamster V-79 cells treated with sodium chromate (VI).

The effect of the cell-permeable metal chelator o-phenanthroline (OP) on the formation of chromium(V), DNA breaks, alkali-labile sites, and enzyme inhibition of chromium(VI) was studied using Chinese hamster V-79 cells. Alkaline elution assays demonstrated that treatment with OP (100-500 microM) resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in cellular levels of either alkali-labile sites or the combination of alkali-labile sites plus DNA single-strand breaks caused by Na2CrO4. Cellular treatment with OP also attenuated the inhibition of glutathione reductase attributed to Na2CrO4. Under the same experimental conditions, the cellular uptake of chromate was not affected by OP. ESR studies revealed that cellular treatment with OP (100-500 microM) resulted in a concentration-dependent decrease in the level of chromium(V) intermediate in cells treated with Na2CrO4. Furthermore, OP inhibited the chromium(V) complex that formed during the reaction of Na2CrO4 with glutathione in vitro, resulting in the decrease of chromium(V)-mediated hydroxyl radical formation while neither the reduction of chromium(VI) nor the formation of the chromium(VI)-glutathione complex was affected, indicating that OP may react with chromium(V) but not with chromium(VI). These results suggest that the metal chelator OP decreases chromate-induced alkali-labile sites or the combination of alkali-labile sites plus DNA strand breaks, as well as chromium inhibition of glutathione reductase, possibly through its ability to directly decrease chromium(V) complex in cells.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

A physiologically based model of chromium kinetics in the rat.

A physiologically based model of chromium kinetics in rats has been developed. The general structure of the model is similar to that of a model of lead kinetics in rats. Like lead chromium exchanges between plasma and the bone surfaces in contact with plasma, and also like lead, although with much lower efficiency, it can become incorporated into actively mineralizing bone. Both processes are included in the model. Parallel absorption and disposition schemes for chromium(VI) and chromium(III) are linked in the model by reduction processes occurring throughout the body, including the lung and gastrointestinal tract. Examination of a number of data sets from studies in which chromium salts were administered to rats intravenously, orally, or by intratracheal instillation established that intravenous administration, on the one hand, and oral or pulmonary administration, on the other hand, result in different disposition patterns. The model was calibrated based on published oral and intratracheal kinetic studies in rats given soluble chromium(III) and chromium(VI) salts. In the most complete of these studies, chromium concentrations were monitored in individual tissues for 42 days following intratracheal administration of a soluble chromium(VI) salt. Inclusion in the model of a urinary excretion delay was necessary in order to fit excretion data from two other intratracheal studies. Model predictions of blood chromium concentrations are compared with the results of a published kinetic study in which rats were administered a soluble chromium(VI) salt by inhalation.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Inorganic chemistry of chromium and its speciation in Whetlerite.

Chromium compounds are among the impregnants that enhance the ability of carbon air filters to absorb and destroy toxic agents such as CK and AC. The possibility of inhaling chromium-containing carbon dust from such filters has caused concern because, in addition to being an essential nutrient, chromium has been identified as a chemical carcinogen in humans. The essentiality or carcinogenicity of chromium depends upon its chemical speciation. Solubility and oxidation state are particularly important factors in assessing the potential hazards associated with the possible inhalation of chromium-containing dusts from these impregnated carbons or Whetlerites. The chemical speciation of the chromium in Whetlerite was found to be: from 0.6 to 1.3% insoluble trivalent chromium; from 1.0 to 1.3% insoluble hexavalent chromium; and from 0.7 to 0.9% soluble hexavalent chromium. The impregnation process, and the resulting speciation of chromium in Whetlerite, is consistent with the inorganic chemistry of chromium.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1989

Evaluation of issues relating to the carcinogen risk assessment of chromium.

Important issues in the carcinogenic risk assessment of chromium compounds are whether both trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds are carcinogenic, the role of solubility in the carcinogenic response, and the carcinogenicity of ingested chromium. Hexavalent chromium compounds are carcinogenic to animals via several routes of exposure, while trivalent chromium compounds, although they demonstrate evidence of genotoxicity, have not been shown in animal studies to be carcinogenic. Workers in chromate production plants, where the risk of lung cancer is elevated, are exposed to both trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds. A cancer unit risk estimate for Wistar rats exposed to a hexavalent chromium aerosol (sodium dichromate) is less than the risk estimate for workers in chromate production. If this difference is biologically real, a possible explanation may be that trivalent compounds also have a carcinogenic effect. For hexavalent chromium compounds, it is contended that only sparingly soluble hexavalent chromium compounds are carcinogenic. Recent evidence, however, indicates that highly soluble hexavalent chromium compounds are also carcinogenic. Animal ingestion studies have not found trivalent chromium compounds to be carcinogenic by ingestion; hexavalent compounds have not been studied. Research by EPA to address the issue of valence state and solubility with respect to carcinogenicity is currently being conducted.

Animals↗