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PubMed2006

Studies of morphological and molecular phylogenetic divergence in spiders (Araneae: Homalonychus) from the American southwest, including divergence along the Baja California Peninsula.

Comparative phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses have revealed a pervasive midpeninsular divergence in the mitochondrial genealogies of numerous vertebrate taxa distributed on the Baja California Peninsula. In this study, we extend the investigation of regional vicariance in Baja California to an arthropod taxon by examining patterns of phylogenetic and morphological divergence in the spider genus Homalonychus (Araneae, Homalonychidae). We analyzed data from two mtDNA genes (16S rRNA and NADH dehydrogenase subunit (1) and a nuclear gene (28S rRNA) using maximum parsimony and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses, and also conducted geometric morphometric analyses employing landmark data on male and female genitalia. Genes and morphology both reveal a deep split across the Colorado River and Gulf of California, separating Homalonychus selenopoides on the east side of river from its congener Homalonychus theologus on the west side of the river, including the Baja California Peninsula. Along the north-south axis of the Baja Peninsula, an apparently more recent midpeninsular phylogenetic break is evident within H. theologus in the mitochondrial genome and in female genitalia. However, there is no measurable divergence between northern and southern populations in either nuclear DNA or male genitalia. We suggest that this discordance between datasets reflects either a difference in rates of evolution between male versus female systems, or that male-based nuclear gene flow is obscuring a phylogenetic split that is fixed in the female-based systems. Our findings provide additional support for a midpeninsular Baja divergence event, although the timing and geological evidence for such an event remain elusive.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Drinking and driving among Mexican American and non-Hispanic white males in Long Beach, California.

Although drinking and driving in the United States has declined substantially during the past two decades, this trend has not been seen among Hispanic drivers. Higher rates of driving while impaired (DWI) arrests and alcohol-related crashes, particularly among Mexican Americans, also have been noted. The extent to which this reflects a lack of understanding of DWI laws rather than a disregard for them is unknown. A survey was conducted among Mexican American and non-Hispanic white male DWI arrestees in Long Beach, California, to ascertain alcohol use, attitudes toward drinking and drinking and driving, and knowledge of DWI laws. The findings were compared with those of Mexican American and non-Hispanic white males recruited from the local community. Mexican American males, both DWIs and those from the community, reported heavier drinking than non-Hispanic white males. All four groups of respondents tended to underestimate the number of drinks needed to achieve the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) threshold at or above which it is illegal to drive under California law. Estimations were around 2-3 drinks rather than a more realistic estimate of 4-5 drinks. However, Mexican American DWIs and their comparison group vastly overestimated the number of drinks to make them unsafe drivers (8- 10 drinks). Furthermore, fewer than half were aware of the BAC threshold in California (0.08%) compared with between 60 and 78% of non-Hispanic whites. This study is limited in scope and needs to be replicated in other communities and with other racial/ethnic groups. However, the clear lack of knowledge of the DWI law in California and a lack of understanding of the relationship between number of drinks and BAC point to the need for culturally sensitive programs that are developed and implemented within the Mexican American community.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2002

Forfeiture programs in California: why so few?

PROBLEM: It is estimated that at least 75% of suspended or revoked drivers continue to drive illegally. In states like California, there are also a substantial and growing number of people who drive without ever having been licensed. Some states, such as Ohio and California, have enacted vehicle impoundment and forfeiture programs as sanctions to reduce these offenses. Published evaluations indicate that vehicle impoundment laws reduce recidivism and crash rates. However, vehicle forfeiture programs have been less successful, mostly because of low levels of enforcement. METHOD: Police officers and district attorneys from 17 jurisdictions were interviewed by phone or in person to determine current enforcement levels and impediments to more aggressive application of statutory authority. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The survey found that most California jurisdictions are enforcing vehicle impoundments for first-time offenders. However, very few jurisdictions were enforcing the vehicle forfeiture law for repeat offenders. Among the reasons for not enforcing the vehicle forfeiture law was a perception that it was too time-consuming and/or not a priority among prosecutors. However, a number of authorities indicated that the simple vehicle impoundment procedure is often functionally equivalent to forfeiture because many drivers fail to retrieve the vehicle at the end of the impoundment period. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Vehicle impoundment programs are effective mechanisms in deterring illicit driving, and states should be encouraged to initiate vehicle impoundment laws. States could achieve even greater safety benefits if vehicle forfeiture sanctions were extensively used for repeat offenders. However, based on California's experience, the incremental benefits of vehicle forfeiture (over vehicle impoundment) may not be very great.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2001

Vaginal birth after cesarean in California.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate rates at which women were offered and consented to trial of labor in California hospitals with high and low risk-adjusted cesarean delivery rates. METHODS: From 267 nonfederal acute-care hospitals in California that performed more than 678 deliveries in 1992-1993, 51 hospitals were selected in a stratified sample. Hospitals in the sample were categorized as having high, medium, and low risk-adjusted cesarean rates using a logistic regression model based on data from the California Patient Discharge Data System. We reviewed medical records of women with previous cesareans for evidence of counseling regarding trial of labor, other clinical variables, and method of delivery. Differences in proportions between the three groups of hospitals were compared. RESULTS: According to records of 369 women with previous cesareans, after excluding contraindications, 312 were potentially eligible for trial of labor. Hospitals with low risk-adjusted cesarean rates documented counseling women for trial of labor in over 99% of records reviewed, compared with 85% and 79%, respectively, of hospitals with intermediate and high rates (P <.001). Rates of completed vaginal births after cesarean were 71% in hospitals with low risk-adjusted cesarean rates, compared with 39% and 31% in hospitals with intermediate and high rates (P <.05). CONCLUSIONS: California hospitals with high cesarean rates in 1992-1993 had markedly higher rates of repeat elective cesarean delivery without evidence of counseling regarding trial of labor. Informed patient choice is a critical element of the decision for trial of labor or elective repeat cesarean, and lack of documented counseling is cause for concern.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Radiocesium in North San Francisco Bay and Baja California coastal surface waters.

Radiocesium, 137Cs, and rare earth elements (REEs) were determined in suspended material and dissolved fractions of waters across the salinity gradient in North San Francisco Bay (estuary). We describe the variation of this conservative isotope tracer with salinity and sediment load. REE data are used to differentiate marine and terrigenous source terrains for suspended material and dissolved fractions. We estimate that about 1-4 x 10(10) Bq of 137Cs migrates annually on suspended material through the North Bay. In addition, 137Cs concentrations were measured in surface waters off Baja California. Combined in situ water density (sigma(t)) and 137Cs data distinguish between California Current and Gulf of California water, and delineate areas of upwelling, where nutrient-rich, deep Pacific Intermediate water, with little or no 137Cs, is brought to the surface off promontories along Baja California.

California↗
PubMed2001

Female victims of intimate partner physical domestic violence (IPP-DV), California 1998.

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to identify factors associated with adult female victims of intimate partner physical domestic violence (IPP-DV) in California and to estimate statewide IPP-DV prevalence. METHODS: We analyzed data from the 1998 California Women's Health Survey, a random, computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) survey of 4006 California women aged > or = 18, conducted by the California Department of Health Services. RESULTS: Data from the survey indicated that 6% of the women reported that in the previous 12 months, their intimate partners threw objects at them, or hit them with an object, or kicked, pushed, slapped, choked, beat up, or threatened them with a gun or a knife. Odds ratio (OR) analyses controlling for age and race/ethnicity suggest that a large number of factors are associated statistically with IPP-DV victims. These factors include feelings of ill physical and mental health; pregnancies at early age; smoking status; nutritional needs; low income; participation in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program; having children aged < 18 in the household; and limited access to health care. Among the non-U.S.-born respondents, IPP-DV victims were significantly younger when they entered the United States than their nonvictim counterparts. A multiple logistic regression model identified the following factors as main correlates with IPP-DV: feelings of being overwhelmed in the past 30 days (OR = 3.4, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.5-4.6); aged 18 to 44 (OR = 2.8, 95% CI = 1.9-4.1); current smoking status (OR = 2.1, 95% CI = 1.5-2.9); participation in WIC in the previous 2 years (OR = 1.8, 95% CI = 1.2-2.6); and being out of work (OR = 1.4, 95% CI = 1.1-1.9). CONCLUSIONS: The above findings suggest that a variety of venues (e.g., schools, mental and physical health care providers, WIC, immigration programs, and social services) will be needed in order to identify/gain access to IPP-DV victims, provide referral resources, and implement any future prevention efforts.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Smoking behavior among urban and rural Native American adolescents in California.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have documented a high prevalence of tobacco use among Native American adolescents. However, little is known about the smoking behavior of Native American adolescents who live in urban areas. This study used statewide data from California to examine the smoking behavior and related psychosocial risk factors among Native American adolescents living in urban and rural counties. METHODS: The Independent Evaluation of the California Tobacco Control Program conducted three population-based statewide surveys of 10th-grade California public school students in 1996, 1998, and 2000. Past-month smoking and psychosocial correlates were examined among 22,440 respondents, including 1060 Native Americans. RESULTS: Native Americans had a 32% excess risk of past-month smoking compared with other ethnic groups. Smoking prevalence did not differ between urban (27.7%) and rural (29.3%) Native Americans. Native Americans reported higher access to cigarettes and exposure to smoking peers than other groups. Those psychosocial variables explained some, but not all, of the excess risk of smoking among Native Americans. CONCLUSIONS: Effective smoking prevention and cessation interventions are needed for Native American adolescents in urban and rural areas of California.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Molecular epidemiology of enzootic rabies in California.

BACKGROUND: Molecular characterization of rabies virus has been used to trace spillover transmission from reservoir species to non-reservoir animals and humans (molecular epidemiology), and to monitor emergence of specific strains of the virus into new species and geographic areas (molecular surveillance). OBJECTIVES: To characterize the enzootic strains of rabies virus in California wildlife for epidemiological investigation of transmission to non-reservoir animals and humans. STUDY DESIGN: Molecular characterization was performed on rabies strains from 213 bats, 276 terrestrial animals and one human case, by RT-PCR amplification of the viral nucleocapsid (N) gene followed by Dde I digestion and restriction endonuclease analysis (REA). Brain material from 88 terrestrial animals and 74 bats was stained with a panel of 20 monoclonal antibodies (MABs) directed against the N protein. In order to characterize rabies from very small quantities of brain tissue a nested RT-PCR was developed and evaluated for sensitivity of rabies detection. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Enzootic terrestrial rabies in California is confined to the Central Valley, the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, and the Central and Northern Pacific Coast Ranges. No terrestrial reservoirs were identified south of the Tehachapi Mountains or east of the Sierra Nevada. Bat strains accounted for rabies in terrestrial animals in these regions. Among terrestrial rabies strains REA identified ten genotypes that segregated geographically and were associated with skunk and fox populations from distinct locations. Co-circulation of three genotypes occurred in Placer County, which had the highest incidence of rabies in skunks. In regions with terrestrial enzootic rabies, the strain from that region accounted for 73% of spillover cases. Bat strains accounted for the remaining 27%. Among terrestrial animals MABs identified three predominant patterns. In rabies strains from bats REA identified ten major and two minor patterns primarily associated with genus and species of bat. Sharing of strains between species was observed. An additional sixteen unclassified REA bat patterns were observed in only one or two individuals of various species. MABs identified four major patterns in bats associated with genus and species of bat with considerable variability. The bat strains most frequently detected in spillover cases throughout California were from the California myotis (Myotis californicus) and Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis). Nested RT-PCR increased the detection level of rabies virus 100,000-fold, to 0.03 TCID50.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Recent diet and breast cancer risk: the California Teachers Study (USA).

OBJECTIVE: The impact, if any, on breast cancer risk of modifying adult dietary intake is an area of much interest. We take the opportunity to address the relationship between recent adult diet and breast cancer risk during the first two years of follow-up of the large California Teachers Study cohort. METHODS: Of the 111.526 at-risk cohort members who resided in California and completed a baseline dietary assessment, 711 were diagnosed with invasive breast cancer after joining the cohort and before January 1998. Average daily nutrient intake was computed based on a food-frequency questionnaire assessing usual dietary intake and portion size during the year prior to joining the cohort. Incident breast cancers were identified through the California Cancer Registry and follow-up for death and confirmation of continued California residence utilized a variety of data sources. Cox proportional hazards models were used to calculate relative hazards. RESULTS: The following components of recent dietary intake were not associated with breast cancer risk: energy, fat, fiber, antioxidant vitamins, and phytoestrogens. Only recent average alcohol consumption of 20 or more grams per day (approximately two or more glasses of wine) was associated with increased risk (RR= 1.5, 95% CI: 1.2-2.0 compared to non-drinkers; P(trend) = 0.01 across quintiles). CONCLUSION: With the exception of alcohol consumption, this study provides no evidence that recent macro- or micronutrient composition of adult diet is likely to have a direct effect on breast cancer risk. Some reduction of alcohol consumption among those consuming more than one drink per day may be beneficial.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Pesticide food poisoning from contaminated watermelons in California, 1985.

Aldicarb, a carbamate pesticide, is the most potent pesticide in the market and has a LD50 of 1 mg/kg. In the United States it is illegal to use aldicarb on certain crops, e.g., watermelons, because it is incorporated into the flesh of the fruit. Once an accidental or illegal use of such a potent pesticide occurs, there is no easy way for the agricultural or public health system to protect the populace. This paper describes the impact of one such event upon the health of individuals and the institutions of California. On July 4, 1985, California and other western states experienced the largest known outbreak of food-borne pesticide illness ever to occur in North America. This was attributed to watermelons contaminated through the illegal or accidental use of aldicarb by a few farmers in one part of the state. Within California, a total of 1,376 illnesses resulting from consumption of watermelons was reported to the California Department of Health Services (CDHS). Of the 1,376 illnesses, 77% were classified as being probable or possible carbamate illnesses. Many of the case reports involved multiple illnesses associated with the same melon among unrelated individuals. Seventeen individuals required hospitalization. There were 47 reports of illness involving pregnant women, two of whom reported having subsequent stillbirths. Thirty-five of the remaining pregnant women were followed-up 9 mo after the epidemic; no additional stillbirths were found.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Umbilical cord blood lead levels in California.

During the fall of 1984, we conducted a survey of umbilical cord blood lead levels of 723 live births that occurred at 5 hospitals located in 5 cities in California. Historical ambient air lead levels were used as a qualitative surrogate of air and dust exposure. The area-specific cord blood means (all means approximately 5 micrograms/dl), medians, deciles, and distributions did not vary among locations. The California distributions included means that were lower than the 6.6 micrograms/dl reported in Needleman et al.'s Boston study in 1979. Indeed, the entire California distribution was shifted to the left of the Boston study distribution, even though 3% of the California cord lead levels exceeded 10 micrograms/dl--the level above which Needleman et al. have documented psychoneurological effects in children during the first few years of life. Fourteen percent of premature babies had cord blood lead levels above 10 micrograms/dl. The association between prematurity (i.e., less than 260 d gestation) and elevated (greater than 5 micrograms/dl) cord blood lead was observed in all hospitals and yielded a relative risk of 2.9 (95% CI: .9, 9.2) and a population attributable risk of 47%. Further research is needed to confirm this association and to explore the roles of endogenous and exogenous sources of lead exposure to the mothers who give birth to premature infants.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2006

The health benefits of reduced tropospheric ozone in California.

Californians are exposed daily to concentrations of ozone (O3) that are among the highest in the United States. Recently, the state adopted a new 8-hr ambient standard of 0.070 ppm, more stringent than the current federal standard. The new standard is based on controlled human studies and on dozens of epidemiologic studies reporting associations between O3 at current ambient levels and a wide range of adverse health outcomes. Clearly, the new O3 standards will require further reductions in the precursor pollutants and additional expenditures for pollution control. Therefore, it is important to quantify the incremental health benefits of moving from current conditions to the new California standard. In this paper, a standard methodology is applied to quantify the health benefits associated with O3 concentration reductions in California. O3 concentration reductions are estimated using ambient monitoring data and a proportional rollback approach in which changes are specific to each air basin, and control strategies may impact concentrations both below and above the standard. Health impacts are based on published epidemiologic studies, including O3-related mortality and morbidity, and economic values are assigned to these outcomes based on willingness-to-pay and cost-of-illness studies. Central estimates of this research indicate that attaining the California 8-hr standard, relative to current concentrations, would result in annual reductions of 630 cases of premature mortality, 4200 respiratory hospital admissions, 660 pediatric emergency room visits for asthma, 4.7 million days of school loss, and 3.1 million minor restricted activity days, with a median estimated economic value of dollar 4.5 billion. Sensitivity analyses indicate that these findings are robust with respect to exposure assessment methods but are influenced by assumptions about the slope of the concentration-response function in threshold models and the magnitude of the O3-mortality relationship. Although uncertainties exist for several components of the methodology, these results indicate that the benefits of reducing O3 to the California standard may be substantial and that further research on the shape of the O3-mortality concentration-response function and economic value of O3-related mortality would best reduce these uncertainties.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2006

Stationary sources of airborne lead: a comparison of emissions data for southern California.

Estimates for the air releases of lead from stationary point sources are considered for the South Coast Air Basin of California. We have examined four databases published by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the California Air Resources Board, and the South Coast Air Quality Management District. Our analysis indicates that none of the databases includes every emitting facility in the South Coast Air Basin of California and that other discrepancies among the databases exist. Additionally, the data have been analyzed for temporal variation, and some of the California Air Resources Board data are not current. The South Coast Air Quality Management District inventory covers 12 times more facilities in 2001 than in 1996. From this analysis, we conclude that all four of the databases would benefit by sharing data, increasing transparency, analyzing uncertainty, and standardizing emission estimation methods.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Economic regulation of ambulance services in California.

OBJECTIVE: This study was intended to identify economic regulatory programs used by California counties (including ambulance franchising and rate setting), to inventory their foci and application, and to identify differences around the state. By studying the variety of programs used in one state, this study establishes a framework for evaluation of state and local regulatory programs elsewhere. METHODS: This study surveyed all California local EMS agencies (LEMSAs); these are California's equivalent of regional EMS organizations. The survey achieved a 100% response rate, and all data involve population parameters obviating the need for inferential statistics. RESULTS: Seventy-three percent of California counties use economic regulations. Large-population counties and those that operate their own LEMSAs are more likely to use economic regulations than are small counties and those that participate in multicounty EMS agencies. Despite a preference for competition in the authorizing statute, most franchises were granted without competition to existing providers. The majority of franchises in the state were granted to public services. Most ambulance rate setting occurs outside of a competitive process. CONCLUSIONS: Economic regulations that were intended to provide a structured marketplace are often being used to protect existing providers, particularly public services, from competition. The growing interest by fire departments in entering the market for emergency ambulance service, along with the existing bias toward them in granting of franchises, does not bode well for use of the competitive process. The growth of managed care may change or eliminate the need for economic regulations but, if they are to continue, more state oversight should be considered.

Ambulances↗
PubMed1999

Neural tube defect prevalence in California (1990-1994): eliciting patterns by type of defect and maternal race/ethnicity.

This study presents race/ethnicity-specific prevalence estimates of neural tube defects (NTDs) in California using 5 years of population-based data. NTD prevalence estimates include prenatally diagnosed cases, as well as cases diagnosed at birth. The California NTD Registry contains NTD case reports identified through the California Maternal Serum Alpha-Feto Protein (AFP) Screening Program, the California Birth Defects Monitoring Program, and additional reports from clinicians and clinics throughout the state. These data were used to estimate NTD prevalence in a large population-based study (n = 1,618,279). The overall NTD prevalence among White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian women are reported, as well as race/ethnic prevalence, for anencephaly, spina bifida, and encephalocele. Rates are expressed as the number of cases per 1,000 women screened between 1990 and 1994. Among 1,457 women with an NTD-affected pregnancy, the overall rate for anencephaly, spina bifida, and encephalocele was 0.49 (95% CI 0.46-0.53), 0.42 (95% CI 0.38-0.45), and 0.08 (95% CI 0.07-0.09), respectively. When these types of NTDs are combined, Hispanic women had the highest overall rate (1.12, 95% CI 1.04-1.21), followed by Whites (0.96, 95% CI 0.89-1.04), Blacks (0.75, 95% CI 0.59-0.91), and Asians (0.75, 95% CI 0.60-0.90). Hispanic women were 45% more likely than White women to have a pregnancy affected with anencephaly (odds ratio = 1.45, 95% CI 1.24-1.70), while Asian women were over two times less likely to have a pregnancy affected with spina bifida (odds ratio = 0.44, 95% CI 0.29-0.65). Considerable variation exists in the prevalence of NTDs by race/ethnicity and by type of NTD, with Hispanic women exhibiting the highest overall NTD rate.

Anencephaly↗
PubMed2002

Prison hospice and pastoral care services in California.

Hospice at the California Medical Facility (CMF) Vacaville dates back to the mid-1980s, when the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) epidemic began to be felt throughout California's Department of Corrections. Vacaville has served for decades as the principal location for delivering health services to California's incarcerated men. Informal hospice-like services were inspired by Elisabeth Kubler-Ross and through inmate and community calls for more humane care for dying inmates. By 1990, efforts to formally establish a hospice were under way. In 1996, a 17-bed, state-licensed hospice began caring for dying inmates. An interdisciplinary team plans and delivers the care, meeting weekly to admit and review patients. The Pastoral Care Services (PCS) inmate volunteer program, with more than 50 trained participants, provides care and comfort to dying patients in hospice and to ill patients on the general medicine service. PCS volunteers perform many duties, including sitting vigil with actively dying inmates. Inmates enrolling in hospice have to forgo further curative therapy, consent to the program in writing, and have a 6-month or less survival prognosis; patients are not required to have a do-not-resuscitate (DNR) order, but are encouraged to consider one. Training for physicians, staff and PCS volunteers is provided by the University of California, Davis faculty of the West Coast Center for Palliative Education. Bereavement services are provided for PCS volunteers, other inmate "family" and staff. Family and friends of the deceased in the free community are followed by phone, mail, and primarily through referral to resources in their local area.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2002

Health care consumption among elderly patients in california: a comprehensive 10-year evaluation of trends in hospitalization rates and charges.

PURPOSE: This report examines health care rates, charges, and patterns of consumption from a comprehensive California hospitalization data set covering 1986-1995. An improved understanding of current trends in health care consumption would facilitate the development of future resource allocation models. DESIGN AND METHODS: We obtained discharge and charge data from all licensed nonfederal hospitals in California between 1986 and 1995 relating to inpatient discharges of individuals aged 55 years and older. We used the direct method of standardization to adjust discharge statistics for differing age and gender case mixes, and we adjusted all charges to 1990 dollars for cost comparisons. RESULTS: Standardized to the 1990 population, annual discharge rates declined between 1986 and 1992, then leveled off to about 227 per 1,000 between 1993 and 1995. Rates of both discharges and charges for men consistently exceeded those for women, there being about a 5-year lag between female and male rates of discharge. The insurance payer mix shifted between 1986 and 1995, with dramatic declines in private insurance mirrored by increases in managed care. IMPLICATIONS: Hospital care consumption among the elderly people in California demonstrates a trend of increasing adjusted total charges despite declining hospitalization rates. Overall, individuals aged 55 years and older comprise 18% of the California population and incur 52% of discounted total charges. Private insurance has virtually disappeared, replaced by HMO/PHP/PPO organizations; still, charges to governmental sources (primarily Medicare and Medi-Cal) account for about 78% of total billings. Absolute numbers of Californians aged 55 and older are projected to increase 54% by 2010 and 226% by 2025 compared with 1995, engendering a dramatic increase in the financial burden of health care to this segment of the population.

Aged↗
PubMed1995

Culicoides variipennis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) complex in California.

Genetic relationships were examined among 24 collections, representing 23 populations of Culicoides variipennis (Coquillett) using isozyme electrophoresis of 11 protein encoding loci. The populations were collected from alkaline or fresh water larval habitats in California. Distance analysis demonstrated that C. v. occidentalis Wirth and Jones and C. v. sonorensis Wirth and Jones are genetically distinct. All C. v. occidentalis were geographically isolated from each other in highly alkaline or saline larval habitats, whereas C. v. sonorensis populations were collected from artificial freshwater habitats that were polluted with organic wastes. Higher levels of gene flow were found between C. v. sonorensis populations than from C. v. sonorensis populations to nearby C. v. occidentalis populations, indicative of genetic isolation between subspecies. Northern California C. v. sonorensis were genetically distinguishable from southern California C. v. sonorensis. The relationship between this variation and bluetongue disease epidemiology in California is discussed.

Alleles↗