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PubMed1997

Sanitation of the liberated territories in Croatia after the Storm campaign: the example of Lika-Senj County.

More than 6,000 km2 of the central and southern areas of the Republic of Croatia were liberated by the Storm campaign, August 4 to 7, 1995. On August 8, 1995, the Ministry of Health sent expert teams to the newly liberated areas, to ensure the basic conditions for the displaced persons to return and live there. To describe the public health measures taken we used the examples of Lika-Senj County (3,746 km2 and 71,215 population). By October 1, 1995, 50 bodies, killed in action, had been detected, pathologically and forensically examined, and then buried. Two hundred thirty-three mostly elderly and sick persons were admitted to the reception center in Gospić; 93 of them returned to their homes, 133 were accommodated with their relatives and friends, and 7 were referred for treatment (4 of them died). Two hundred ten cattle carcasses were buried using adequate sanitation measures, whereas 5,575 sheep, 3,138 head of horned cattle, 298 head of hoofed animals, and 300 head of other cattle were caught alive. The procedures of disinfection, disinfestation, and deodorization were performed in 720 apartments, 2 hotels, 3 schools, 1 kindergarten, 1 health care unit, 1 sports hall, and 5 shops. The main water pump was cleared of mines and partially repaired, whereas some 20 water supply facilities were placed under surveillance. Three food depots were found and properly treated. The entire territory was closely observed for possible occurrence of infectious disease.

Croatia↗
PubMed2005

Effect of antiseptic handwashing vs alcohol sanitizer on health care-associated infections in neonatal intensive care units.

BACKGROUND: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Ga, recommend use of waterless alcohol hand products in lieu of traditional handwashing for patient care, but there are few data demonstrating the impact of this recommendation on health care-associated infections. OBJECTIVE: To compare the effect of 2 hand hygiene regimens on infection rates and skin condition and microbial counts of nurses' hands in neonatal intensive care units. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Clinical trial using a crossover design in 2 neonatal intensive care units in Manhattan, NY, from March 1, 2001, to January 31, 2003, including 2932 neonatal hospital admissions (51 760 patient days) and 119 nurse participants. INTERVENTION: Two hand hygiene products were tested: a traditional antiseptic handwash and an alcohol hand sanitizer. Each product was used for 11 consecutive months in each neonatal intensive care unit in random order. RESULTS: After adjusting for study site, birth weight, surgery, and follow-up time, there were no significant differences in neonatal infections between the 2 products; odds ratios for alcohol compared with handwashing were 0.98 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.77-1.25) for any infection, 0.99 (95% CI, 0.77-1.33) for bloodstream infections, 1.61 (95% CI, 0.57-5.54) for pneumonia, 1.78 (95% CI, 0.94-3.37) for skin and soft tissue infections, and 1.26 (95% CI, 0.42-3.76) for central nervous system infections. The skin condition of participating nurses was significantly improved during the alcohol phase (P = .02 and P = .049 for observer and self-assessments, respectively), but there were no significant differences in mean microbial counts on nurses' hands (3.21 and 3.11 log(10) colony-forming units for handwashing and alcohol, respectively; P = .38). CONCLUSIONS: Infection rates and microbial counts on nurses' hands were equivalent during handwashing and alcohol phases, and nurses' skin condition was improved using alcohol. However, assessing the impact on infection rates of a single intervention is challenging because of multiple contributory factors such as patient risk, unit design, and staff behavior. Other practices such as frequency and quality of hand hygiene are likely to be as important as product in reducing risk of cross-transmission.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Sanitation of wallboard colonized with Stachybotrys chartarum.

Sections (8 cm2) of unused, nonsterile gypsum wallboard (dry wall) were inoculated with varying densities (10(4) to approximately 10(8)/ml) of conidia from 14- to 21-day cultures of Stachybotrys chartarum grown on cellulose agar. The sections were permitted to air dry and were placed into vessels with 86% or 92% RH and incubated at 22-25 degrees C for up to 12 weeks. The moisture content of the dryboard increased from near 10% to over 35%. Selected sections with confluent surface growth, mainly of S. chartarum, were obtained within 3 weeks. Sections were cleaned with a quaternary or quaternary and chlorine dioxide or a concentrated oxygen-saline solution and treated, in some cases, with a preservative system and returned to humidity vessels. Reemergence of S. chartarum from inoculated and treated surfaces occurred within 5 weeks only with sections treated with the quaternary alone. Other fungi, mostly species of Aspergillus, Chaetomium and Penicillium, slowly colonized (between 9-12 weeks) at least some areas of most treated surfaces and most uninoculated control surfaces. Stachybotrys chartarum was also found on several sections of uninoculated controls. Sections treated with a quaternary/acrylic and placed in a dynamic challenging chamber remained visually free of colonized fungi for over 90 days. These studies indicate that control samples of uninstalled wallboard, available from local distributors, can contain a baseline bioburden, including S. chartarum, that will colonize surfaces under high humidity conditions. Sanitation and preservation treatment of the wallboard can markedly delay regrowth of these fungi, particularly of S. chartarum.

Chlorine Compounds↗
PubMed1981

Environmental sanitation infection and nutritional status of infants in rural St. Lucia, West Indies.

About 75 babies in each of three valleys were followed up for two years. The valleys had different levels of water supplies and latrine facilities, whereas socio-economic conditions and feeding patterns were similar. Results show that the prevalence of diarrhoea and intestinal helminths reduced as sanitation improved. Ascaris and Trichuris infections dropped 30 and 50% respectively after water supplies and latrines were installed. The growth of the children was significantly better in the improved areas. The possibility of malnutrition being secondary to illness, rather than primary, is included in the discussion.

Ascariasis↗
PubMed1982

Entomological studies of on-site sanitation systems in Botswana and Tanzania.

A survey of various types of on-site sanitation systems in Dar es Salaam and Gaborone showed that many were infested with larvae of flies (mainly Chrysomya putoria) and Culex mosquitoes (mainly Cx quinquefasciatus). The mosquitoes only occurred where the pit contents had a free water surface but the flies were found in both wet and scum covered pits. The infestation rate was much higher where the latrine vent pipe had no insect-proof screen. Exit traps were placed on the vent pipes and drop holes to determine by which route the emerging flies and mosquitoes left the pit. Provided that the latrine door was kept closed (thus producing a relatively greater light intensity in the vent pipe), over 90% of flies went up the vent pipe. In most cases about 80% of Cx quinquefasciatus did the same, but in two pits very dense mosquito infestations were found and over 1000 mosquitoes per night were caught leaving the pit through the drop hole. In such cases traps on the drop holes might be used as a semi-permanent control method. Entry traps were placed on the vent pipe and drop hole to catch females attempting to enter to lay eggs. All the flies and the majority of the mosquitoes caught were trying to enter the vent pipe which indicates that odour from this source is attractive to these insects. Various possible modifications to the methods of using latrines to minimize associated insect problems are discussed; the simplest and most important is to ensure that all vent pipes are effectively screened.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Survival of Enterobacter sakazakii on fresh produce as affected by temperature, and effectiveness of sanitizers for its elimination.

A study was done to determine the survival characteristics of Enterobacter sakazakii on the surface of apples, cantaloupes, strawberries, lettuce, and tomatoes stored at 4, 12, and 25 degrees C for 8-28 days. Populations significantly decreased (p or=50 microg/ml, were equivalent in killing E. sakazakii on apples. Populations of E. sakazakii on apples treated with 10 microg/ml chlorine dioxide for 1 or 5 min were significantly reduced (p or=4.00 log CFU/apple. Reductions of >or=3.70 log CFU/tomato were achieved by treatment with 10 microg/ml chlorine or chlorine dioxide or 40 microg/ml Tsunami 200 for 5 min. Reductions in populations of E. sakazakii on lettuce treated with chlorine at 10, 50, and 100 microg/ml for 1 min ranged from 1.61 to 2.50 log CFU/sample (26+/-4 g), compared to populations remaining on lettuce washed with water. Chlorine was less effective in killing E. sakazakii on lettuce than on apples or tomatoes. Treatment of lettuce with Tsunami 200 (40 and 80 microg/ml) for 5 min caused a reduction of >or=5.31 log CFU/sample. Results provide insights to predicting survival characteristics of E. sakazakii on produce and the efficacy of sanitizers in killing the bacterium.

Chlorine↗
PubMed2006

Effect of horticultural waste composting on infected plant residues with pathogenic bacteria and fungi: integrated and localized sanitation.

The aim of this work was to study the effect of composting on the viability of plant pathogenic fungi and bacteria. The research consisted of pilot-scale composting of horticultural waste in compost windrows. Studies were carried out on vegetable residues infected with plant pathogenic microorganisms included by either integrated or localized infection. In the first case, the plant pathogen viability was investigated when infected material was mixed throughout compost, while the localized infection was used to study the effect of the composting process on plant waste spot-inoculated with pathogenic microorganisms. Results for localized sanitation showed the total elimination of all tested phytopathogens between 48 and 120 h after composting began. In this case significant differences were observed in relation to 9 different zones in the pile. The disappearance of these microorganisms was similar when all plant waste included in the windrow was infected (integrated infection). Additionally, the results obtained confirmed that the bacteria showed a greater capacity to persist during composting than the fungi. Composting is therefore considered a useful method for recycling horticultural waste and eliminating phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi that inhabit this kind of residue.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2005

Nutrient removal by NF and RO membranes in a decentralized sanitation system.

Decentralized treatment of domestic wastewater offers the possibility of water and nutrient reuse. In a decentralized sanitation system the household wastewater streams are separated in a large diluted stream (gray water) and a small and concentrated stream (black water) containing important nutrients like ammonium and phosphate. Nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes might be used to recover the nutrients from anaerobically treated black water. The permeate might be used in a water reuse scheme. In case of water reuse the produced permeate should meet guidelines for potable water or meet new guidelines which might be applied in the future for intermediate quality of water, for example toilet flushwater; when this is not possible the permeate should meet guidelines for discharge. The most stringent guidelines apply for ammonium and phosphate. The focus of this paper is to test commercially available NF and RO membranes to remove nutrients from anaerobically treated black water in order to meet the Dutch guidelines. A large number of commercial tubular, capillary and flat sheet NF and RO membranes was tested on laboratory scale on their performance to meet the Dutch guidelines for ammonium and phosphate. The ammonium and phosphate concentrations used were based on the effluent composition of anaerobically treated black water. Ammonium and phosphate rejection were both measured in synthetic single salt and multi-ion mixtures and in anaerobic effluent. The rejection for ammonium (30-95%) is neither sufficient for discharge nor potable water use. The rejection of phosphate (74-99%) is in most cases almost sufficient to meet the standards for potable water.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗
PubMed1997

Incomplete sanitation of a meat grinder and ingestion of raw ground beef: contributing factors to a large outbreak of Salmonella typhimurium infection.

Consumers in the United States continue to eat raw or undercooked foods of animal origin despite public health warnings following several well-publicized outbreaks. We investigated an outbreak of Salmonella serotype Typhimurium infection in 158 patients in Wisconsin during the 1994 Christmas holiday period. To determine the vehicle and source of the outbreak, we conducted cohort and case-control studies, and environmental investigations in butcher shop A. Eating raw ground beef purchased from butcher shop A was the only item significantly associated with illness [cohort study: relative risk = 5.8, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.5-21.8; case control study: odds ratio = 46.2, 95% CI = 3.8-2751]. Inadequate cleaning and sanitization of the meat grinder in butcher shop A likely resulted in sustained contamination of ground beef during an 8-day interval. Consumer education, coupled with hazard reduction efforts at multiple stages in the food processing chain, will continue to play an important role in the control of foodborne illness.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Suppression of spontaneous and hydrogen peroxide-induced mutations by a MutT-type nucleotide pool sanitization enzyme, the Escherichia coli Orf135 protein.

BACKGROUND: We recently found that the Escherichia coli Orf135 protein, a MutT-type enzyme, hydrolysed 2-hydroxy-dATP (2-OH-dATP), and less efficiently, 8-hydroxy-dGTP. RESULTS: In this study, we examined the effects of the absence of the orf135 gene. Frequencies of spontaneous and H2O2-induced mutations were two- to three-fold higher in the orf135- strain than in the wild-type strain. These mutations include various mutations involving a G:C-->T:A transversion, the same type of mutation elicited by 2-OH-dATP. Over-expression of the Orf135 protein suppressed mutations even in the wild-type strain, as well as in the orf135- strain. CONCLUSIONS: The mutator phenotype of bacteria lacking the Orf135 protein suggests that this protein is involved in the suppression of mutations induced by oxidized deoxynucleotides in vivo and that various MutT-type enzymes contribute to nucleotide pool sanitization.

Base Sequence↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Hepatic cytochrome P450 degradation: mechanistic diversity of the cellular sanitation brigade.

Hepatic cytochromes P450 (P450s) are monotopic endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-anchored hemoproteins that exhibit heterogenous physiological protein turnover. The molecular/cellular basis for such heterogeneity is not well understood. Although both autophagic-lysosomal and nonlysosomal pathways are available for their cellular degradation, native P450s such as CYP2B1 are preferentially degraded by the former route, whereas others such as CYPs 3A are degraded largely by the proteasomal pathway, and yet others such as CYP2E1 may be degraded by both. The molecular/structural determinants that dictate this differential proteolytic targeting of the native P450 proteins remain to be unraveled. In contrast, the bulk of the evidence indicates that inactivated and/or otherwise posttranslationally modified P450 proteins undergo adenosine triphosphate-dependent proteolytic degradation in the cytosol. Whether this process specifically involves the ubiquitin (Ub)-/26S proteasome-dependent, the Ub-independent 20S proteasome-dependent, or even a recently characterized Ub- and proteasome-independent pathway may depend on the particular P450 species targeted for degradation. Nevertheless, the collective evidence on P450 degradation attests to a remarkably versatile cellular sanitation brigade available for their disposal. Given that the P450s are integral ER proteins, this mechanistic diversity in their cellular disposal should further expand the repertoire of proteolytic processes available for ER proteins, thereby extending the currently held general notion of ER-associated degradation.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Composting is an effective treatment option for sanitization of Phytophthora ramorum-infected plant material.

AIMS: To determine the effects of heat and composting treatments on the viability of the plant pathogen Phytophthora ramorum grown on both artificial and various natural substrates. METHODS AND RESULTS: Phytophthora ramorum was grown on V8 agar, inoculated on bay laurel leaves (Umbellularia californica) and on woody tissues of coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia). Effects on growth, viability and survival were measured as a result of treatment in ovens and compost piles. Direct plating onto PARP medium and pear-baiting techniques were used to determine post-treatment viability. No P. ramorum was recovered at the end of the composting process, regardless of the isolation technique used. By using a PCR assay designed to detect the DNA of P. ramorum, we were able to conclude the pathogen was absent from mature compost and not merely suppressed or dormant. CONCLUSIONS: Some heat and composting treatments eliminate P. ramorum to lower than detectable levels on all substrates tested. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Composting is an effective treatment option for sanitization of P. ramorum-infected plant material. Assaying for pathogen viability in compost requires a direct test capable of differentiating between pathogen suppression and pathogen elimination.

Pest Control, Biological↗
PubMed1987

Microbiological evaluation of wet and dry floor sanitization systems in hospital patient rooms.

A new system for sanitizing floors in hospital patient rooms has been developed. The method consists of dry dusting with a cotton-blend, chemically treated (10% by dry mop weight) dust mop. This method was compared with a conventional cleaning protocol consisting of an initial predusting with the same nongermicidal chemical (3% by dry mop weight) followed by wet mopping with a fresh solution of a quaternary ammonium disinfectant-detergent. Each of six rooms was sampled by using RODAC plates (Becton Dickinson Labware, Oxnard, Calif.) on 10 consecutive days for each of the two methods. The study was initially performed during the summer and then repeated during the winter. Results imply that there is no significant difference between the new dry method (81.9% CFU reduction) and the conventional method (83.1% CFU reduction). Furthermore, the initial dry dusting step in the conventional method accounted for virtually all of the reduction by that method. Thus, wet mopping with a germicidal chemical produced no additional significant reduction of natural microbial populations on environmental surfaces beyond that achieved by dry dusting with dust-suppressant chemicals.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2004

Sensitivity of Escherichia coli O157:H7 to commercially available alkaline cleaners and subsequent resistance to heat and sanitizers.

The effects of seven commercially available alkaline cleaners used in the food processing industry, 0.025 M NaOH, and 0.025 M KOH on viability of wild-type (EDL 933) and rpoS-deficient (FRIK 816-3) strains of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in logarithmic and stationary phases of growth were determined. Cells were treated at 4 or 23 degrees C for 2, 10, or 30 min. Cleaners 2, 4, 6, and 7, which contained hypochlorite and <11% NaOH and/or KOH (pH 11.2 to 11.7), killed significantly higher numbers of cells than treatment with cleaner 3, containing sodium metasilicate (pH 11.4) and <10% KOH, and cleaner 5, containing ethylene glycol monobutyl ether (pH 10.4). There were no differences in the sensitivities of logarithmic and stationary-phase cells to the alkaline cleaners. Treatment with KOH or NaOH (pH 12.2) was not as effective as four out of seven commercial cleaners in killing E. coli O157:H7, indicating that chlorine and other cleaner components have bactericidal activity at high pH. Stationary-phase cells of strain EDL 933 that had been exposed to cleaner 7 at 4 or 23 degrees C and strain FRIK 816-3 exposed to cleaner 7 at 23 degrees C had significantly higher D(55 degrees C) (decimal reduction time, minutes at 55 degrees C) values than control cells or cells exposed to cleaner 5, indicating that exposure to cleaner 7 confers cross-protection to heat. Cells of EDL 933 treated with cleaner 7 at 12 degrees C showed significantly higher D(55 degrees C) values than cells of FRIK 816-3, indicating that rpoS may play a role in cross-protection. Stationary-phase cells treated with cleaner 5 or cleaner 7 at 4 or 12 degrees C were not cross-protected against subsequent exposure to sanitizers containing quaternary ammonium compounds or sodium hypochlorite, or to cetylpyridinium chloride and benzalkonium chloride.

Alkalies↗
PubMed1961

Algicidal and sanitizing properties of Armazide.

Algicidal and sanitizing properties of Armazide, a new swimming pool additive, consisting of 12% w/v each of dodecylamine hydrochloride, trimethyl alkyl ammonium chloride, and methyl alkyl dipolyoxypropylene ammonium methyl sulfate in solution, were evaluated by laboratory techniques against algae and sewage. Results indicated it to be highly effective in low concentrations especially in conjunction with low concentrations of chlorine. Swimming pool field tests were found to confirm the laboratory findings. Various treatment levels and methods are described for swimming pools using treatments based upon the actual condition of the pool and water. The use of the product permitted a reduction in chlorine residual in pools resulting in greatly reduced requirements for chlorinating chemicals along with absence of irritation, odor, and other undesirable results usually associated with standard pool chlorination methods.

Chlorine↗
PubMed1986

Plastic wrap for US transducer sterility or sanitization.

Commercially available plastic wrap can be used to encase an ultrasound transducer for sanitization purposes. If sterility is required, an individual piece of plastic wrap can be gas sterilized before the transducer is covered with it. This technique does not degrade or temporally limit the use of the transducer, it is easy to perform, and the materials are readily available.

Acoustics↗
PubMed2003

Impact of sanitation and health education on intestinal parasite infection among primary school aged children of Sherpur, Bangladesh.

This study was carried out in 1999-2000 in the northern part of Bangladesh to determine the impact of sanitary latrine use and of health education on intestinal parasites in school-aged children. The children were between 5 and 13 years of age and stool samples revealed that more than half (53%) of the study sample was still infected with one or more intestinal parasites even after 4 years of intervention. Ascariasis was found to have the highest prevalence rate (36.2%) and hookworm the lowest (10.7%). Intestinal parasite infection was significantly lower (P < 0.05) among those who used a sanitary latrine and received health education. This result is consistent with observations that the effect of sanitation and health education is slow to develop. Concerted primary healthcare activities with community development efforts should be undertaken to improve the overall living condition of the people of this area to control this problem.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Chemical resistance of the gram-negative bacteria to different sanitizers in a water purification system.

BACKGROUND: Purified water for pharmaceutical purposes must be free of microbial contamination and pyrogens. Even with the additional sanitary and disinfecting treatments applied to the system (sequential operational stages), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas alcaligenes, Pseudomonas picketti, Flavobacterium aureum, Acinetobacter lowffi and Pseudomonas diminuta were isolated and identified from a thirteen-stage purification system. To evaluate the efficacy of the chemical agents used in the disinfecting process along with those used to adjust chemical characteristics of the system, over the identified bacteria, the kinetic parameter of killing time (D-value) necessary to inactivate 90% of the initial bioburden (decimal reduction time) was experimentally determined. METHODS: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas alcaligenes, Pseudomonas picketti, Flavobacterium aureum, Acinetobacter lowffi and Pseudomonas diminuta were called in house (wild) bacteria. Pseudomonas diminuta ATCC 11568, Pseudomonas alcaligenes INCQS , Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442, Pseudomonas fluorescens ATCC 3178, Pseudomonas picketti ATCC 5031, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 937 and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 were used as 'standard' bacteria to evaluate resistance at 25 degrees C against either 0.5% citric acid, 0.5% hydrochloric acid, 70% ethanol, 0.5% sodium bisulfite, 0.4% sodium hydroxide, 0.5% sodium hypochlorite, or a mixture of 2.2% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and 0.45% peracetic acid. RESULTS: The efficacy of the sanitizers varied with concentration and contact time to reduce decimal logarithmic (log10) population (n cycles). To kill 90% of the initial population (or one log10 cycle), the necessary time (D-value) was for P. aeruginosa into: (i) 0.5% citric acid, D = 3.8 min; (ii) 0.5% hydrochloric acid, D = 6.9 min; (iii) 70% ethanol, D = 9.7 min; (iv) 0.5% sodium bisulfite, D = 5.3 min; (v) 0.4% sodium hydroxide, D = 14.2 min; (vi) 0.5% sodium hypochlorite, D = 7.9 min; (vii) mixture of hydrogen peroxide (2.2%) plus peracetic acid (0.45%), D = 5.5 min. CONCLUSION: The contact time of 180 min of the system with the mixture of H2O2+ peracetic acid, a total theoretical reduction of 6 log10 cycles was attained in the water purified storage tank and distribution loop. The contact time between the water purification system (WPS) and the sanitary agents should be reviewed to reach sufficient bioburden reduction (over 6 log10).

Disinfectants↗