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PubMed1998

Incidental appendectomy--yes or no? A retrospective case study and review of the literature.

OBJECTIVE: A retrospective review of appendectomies performed at the University of Kansas Medical Center between January 1, 1989, and January 1, 1994, was conducted. In addition, the literature evaluating effectiveness of incidental appendectomy in preventing future operation and morbidity from appendicitis was reviewed. The results of the two reviews were analyzed to formulate guidelines for the appropriateness of performing incidental appendectomy in association with other operative procedures. METHOD: A retrospective review of results of appendectomies performed in 460 patients at the University of Kansas Medical Center with analysis of operative findings, pathology of the removed appendix and operative complications was performed. These results were compared with those of a systematic review of the literature utilizing a Medline search relating to the subject of incidental appendix removal. RESULTS: Two hundred sixty-one incidental appendectomies were performed in this study of 460 patients (60%). The procedure was most commonly performed with total abdominal hysterectomy (56%), followed by oophorectomy (15%) and exploratory laparotomy (11%). Morbidity was minimal at all ages. Microscopic pathology was found in 25% of the cases. CONCLUSION: The data from the current survey and literature review support incidental removal of the appendix in the young patient (< 35 years old). In patients 35-50 years old the literature is controversial, and the patient's clinical condition and judgment of the operating surgeon should determine whether incidental appendectomy should be performed. However, routine incidental appendectomy cannot be justified in patients greater than age 50.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Acute fetal asphyxia and permanent brain injury: a retrospective analysis of current indicators.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a term neonate who has had sufficient intrapartum asphyxia to produce persistent brain injury will manifest the following four criteria: profound acidemia (arterial pH <7.00), an APGAR score < or =3 for 5 min or longer, seizures within 24 h of birth, and multiorgan system dysfunction. METHODS: Singleton, liveborn, neurologically impaired neonates > or =37 weeks gestation who lived at least 6 days and had sufficient documentation of current intrapartum asphyxia criteria were retrospectively analyzed. Of these infants, solely neonates with acute fetal asphyxia due to a sudden prolonged FHR deceleration that lasted until delivery from a catastrophic event, e.g., uterine rupture, cord prolapse, were included. Organ system dysfunction was defined by separate criteria for each organ system. Dysfunction in one or more was defined as multiorgan system dysfunction. RESULTS: Of the 292 eligible infants in the registry, 47 satisfied the entry criteria. In these 47 neonates, 10 (21%) satisfied all 4 criteria for intrapartum asphyxia. CONCLUSIONS: Our retrospective study suggests that currently used indicators to define permanent fetal brain injury are not valid.

Apgar Score↗
PubMed1999

A retrospective analysis of the accuracy of T2-weighted images and dynamic gadolinium-enhanced sequences in the detection and characterization of focal hepatic lesions.

The aim of this study was to determine the relative ability of T2-weighted and dynamic gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted gradient-echo sequences to detect and characterize focal hepatic lesions. We retrospectively studied 37 patients with proven focal hepatic lesions using the following sequences: a T1-weighted spin-echo sequence (T1), a T2-weighted sequence (T2), and a series of breath-hold dynamic gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted gradient-echo sequences (Gd). Two observers were asked to determine retrospectively the number and type of focal hepatic lesions present using images from three combinations of sequences (T1+T2, T1+Gd, T1+T2+Gd). Proof of the number and diagnosis of focal lesions in each patient was established using a consensus read. Both readers detected more focal lesions when both the T2-weighted sequences and the gadolinium-enhanced sequences were available than on either sequence alone, although this improvement reached statistical significance (P<0.05) only for one of the readers. There was no significant difference (P<0.05) in the ability to characterize lesions between any of the sets of sequences. The combination of dynamic gadolinium-enhanced images and T2-weighted images was shown to assess focal hepatic lesions better than either of these sequences alone.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1980

Endodermal sinus (yolk sac) tumor elements in testicular germ-cell tumors in adults: comparison of prospective and retrospective studies.

The incidence of endodermal sinus tumor (EST) or yolk sac tumor (YST) elements has been studied in two series of testicular germ-cell neoplasms in adults. One series, consisting of 200 germ-cell neoplasms seen from 1053 through 1968, was studied retrospectively, and the other, consisting of 147 cases seen from May 1974 through February 1979, was studied prospectively. Excluding the cases of pure seminoma, EST(YST) elements were found in 21 (28.7%) of 73 cases in the retrospective series and in 27 (44.4%) of 61 cases in the prospective series. The EST(YST) elements were in all cases admixed with other neoplastic germ-cell elements and varied from microscopic foci to being the predominant element within a tumor. The EST(YST) elements were histologically similar to infantile EST(YST) and EST(YST) in other locations. Serum alphafetoprotein (AFP) was determined in the majority of patients in the prospective series, and there was good correlation between the presence of EST(YST) elements within the tumor and elevated levels of AFP. The results of the present study indicate that EST(YST) elements occur quite frequently in testicular germ-cell neoplasms in adults and provide an explanation for the raised levels of serum AFP found in many adults with testicular germ-cell tumors. The results emphasize the importance of a thorough and careful pathologic examination of testicular germ-cell tumors, and the value of AFP as a tumor marker in patients with EST(YST). The results also lend further support to the view that EST(YST) elements found in testicular germ-cell tumors in adults are homologous with infantile EST(YST) and that EST(YST) is a distinctive and specific type of germ-cell neoplasm and should be included as such in the classification of testicular tumors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Chemosensitivity testing of human malignant melanoma. A retrospective analysis of clinical response and in vitro drug sensitivity.

BACKGROUND: Clinical response rates in the treatment of patients with disseminated malignant melanoma are low and unpredictable. Several reports have documented that clonogenic assay systems for in vitro drug testing are capable of predicting resistance to therapy in vivo and might provide guidelines to improve clinical response rates. METHODS: Specimens from metastatic lesions of patients with malignant melanoma, predominantly from lymph nodes and skin, were disaggregated, exposed to a panel of 10 cytotoxic drugs for 1 hour, and subsequently cultured in agarose. Effects were calculated by the ability to form tumor colonies compared with an untreated control after 7-14 days. A retrospective comparison between the in vitro drug testing result and clinical response was possible in 19 cases. RESULTS: An average of 7.3 drugs per specimen were tested. A high degree of resistance was observed against all cytostatic agents studied independently of the tumor site. In 47 of 181 in vitro drug tests, tumor colony formation was reduced by 30-50%; in 17 of 181, the reduction was more than 50%. A retrospective analysis showed no clinical response in 11 cases and one mixed response in which patients received drugs that had been shown to be "resistant" in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the concept that in vitro drug testing promises to help avoid treatment with ineffective drugs and their associated toxic side effects. Furthermore, it may increase the likelihood of obtaining a clinical response in the treatment of disseminated malignant melanoma. The major limitation in the treatment of malignant melanoma is the lack of availability of effective agents for treatment.

Antineoplastic Agents↗
PubMed1992

Neonatal hemochromatosis: genetic counseling based on retrospective pathologic diagnosis.

We report a case of neonatal hemochromatosis in which the genetic counseling was initiated by, and based on, retrospective pathologic diagnosis. Perinatal or neonatal hemochromatosis is beginning to be recognized as a distinct clinical entity and one of the most common causes of perinatal cirrhosis. The exact mechanism of liver damage and the relationship to adult type hemochromatosis have not been fully clarified. The pattern of fibrosis in the liver plus the abundant iron deposition in the liver and other organs separate this entity pathologically from other causes of neonatal liver failure. We report on a case of neonatal hemochromatosis that was diagnosed on retrospective autopsy review of an infant with supposed hereditary tyrosinemia, when the family presented for genetic counseling. This case emphasizes to the genetic counselor and pathologist the need to consider the diagnosis prenatally, after birth, or at death, as failure to do so would result in the inability to identify families at genetic risk for neonatal hemochromatosis or in mislabeling a family with another inborn error.

Female↗
PubMed1995

Correlates of breastfeeding frequency among nomadic pastoralists of Turkana, Kenya: a retrospective study.

Recent research has shown that significant variation in breast-feeding behavior exists among natural fertility populations, all of whom have been characterized as practicing "on-demand" breastfeeding. A number of recent prospective studies have contributed to a better understanding of breastfeeding structure and of its consequences for population differences in fertility. Currently, there is a growing interest in quantifying the complex environmental and biocultural interactions which influence that structure; in other words, in establishing an ecology of breastfeeding. In this paper, a carefully structured retrospective study of breastfeeding behavior among nomadic Turkana is used to identify environmental, biobehavioral, and socioeconomic factors associated with variation in breastfeeding frequency among Turkana women. In agreement with the results of a prospective study conducted as part of the same research, the age (growth) and physical development of nurslings show significant correlations with breastfeeding frequency. Maternal physical status, the depth of the maternal social network, and, to a lesser degree, rainfall patterns are also significant. All of these factors appear to influence breastfeeding through their effects on maternal participation in herding activities and related absences from camp. Finally, the study also presents new strategies for collecting and utilizing retrospective data, which are notoriously unreliable and difficult to classify according to operational definitions recently developed for prospective studies. Results of the present study suggest methods by which the quality and reliability of recall data may be enhanced.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Changes in bone mineral density following discontinuation or continuation of alendronate therapy in glucocorticoid-treated patients: a retrospective, observational study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of discontinuing or continuing alendronate (ALN) therapy on bone mineral density (BMD) after patients on a long-term regimen of glucocorticoids (GCs) completed a 1-year treatment period with ALN. METHODS: Eligible patients were individuals with GC-induced osteoporosis who had received ALN (5 or 10 mg) for 1 year in a prior clinical trial and, at the end of the year, were still taking GCs at an average daily dose of > or =7.5 mg of prednisone or equivalent. Patients were contacted 3-5 years after completion of the prior ALN trial for followup measurements of the lumbar spine BMD and hip BMD, and retrospective information was collected about serious or drug-related adverse experiences and concomitant medication use. Some patients remained on GCs, and some remained on ALN, either alone or in combination with other drugs. The primary response parameter was the percentage change in lumbar spine BMD from the end of year 1 to the followup visit. Change in BMD at the hip was a secondary response parameter. RESULTS: Ninety (49.2%) of the eligible 183 patients participated in the retrospective study. The followup period, which began at the end of year 1 of the original clinical trial, ranged from 3.3 years to 4.6 years. The mean number of days of treatment with ALN was 507. Fifty patients were included in the analysis because they had received supraphysiologic doses of GCs (doses above the lowest tertile of GC use for the study population; that is, higher than approximately 6 mg/day), and they had not taken (defined as <6 months of use) other bone-affecting agents except ALN. Eleven of the 50 patients discontinued taking ALN (duration of use <90 days), 8 took ALN between 90 days and 300 days, and 31 continued to take ALN for >300 days after year 1 of the clinical trial. GC users who discontinued treatment with ALN (<90 days of therapy) had numerically greater decreases in BMD at the lumbar spine, femoral neck, and total hip from the end of year 1 (mean change -5.1%, -9.2%, and -6.6%, respectively), compared with patients who continued to take ALN for >300 days (mean change 0.1%, -0.9%, and 1.8%, respectively). CONCLUSION: Substantial loss of BMD in the lumbar spine and hip was seen in patients who discontinued treatment with ALN but who continued to take >6 mg/day of GCs. However, patients receiving GCs who remained on the ALN regimen appeared to benefit from continued ALN treatment, since BMD was maintained in this latter group.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Therapy for severe interstitial lung disease in systemic sclerosis. A retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: This retrospective observational study attempted to determine whether any of the therapies used in the management of systemic sclerosis (SSc) patients held potential benefit for patients with interstitial lung disease. METHODS: All patients with SSc who had a pulmonary function test (PFT) showing a forced vital capacity (FVC) of < 70% predicted and an additional PFT at least 4 months later were grouped according to the treatment they received. Changes in pulmonary function were analyzed by the mean percent predicted FVC from the initial and the final test, and by the rate of percent change in FVC (ml/year) in the first 2 years after therapy. Bronchoalveolar lavage was performed in a subset of these patients. RESULTS: Of 363 SSc patients who had an FVC < 70% predicted, 122 had a second PFT and fulfilled the criteria for one of the following drug groups: high-dose prednisone (n = 21), immunosuppressive other than cyclophosphamide (CYC) (n = 16), CYC (n = 14), D-penicillamine (n = 37), or no drug (n = 34). In both analyses, the CYC-treated group showed significantly more improvement in FVC than did the other groups. Patients with early disease had the greatest likelihood of responding to any drug. CONCLUSION: This retrospective study shows that patients treated with CYC had a significant improvement in FVC over time. Prospective controlled studies of CYC treatment in early disease are necessary to determine if it can significantly alter the natural history of interstitial lung disease.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Predictive, concurrent, prospective and retrospective validity of self-reported delinquency.

BACKGROUND: The self-report method is widely used to measure offending. Previous studies suggest that it is generally valid, but that its validity may be lower for blacks than for whites. AIM To assess the validity of self-reported offending in relation to court referrals, and to investigate how it varies with types of offences, sex and race. METHOD: Annual court and self-report data were collected between ages 11 and 17 for eight offences in the Seattle Social Development Project, which is a prospective longitudinal survey of 808 youths. RESULTS: Self-reports predicted future court referrals. Predictive validity was highest for drug offences, for males and for whites, and lowest for females and Asians. The probability of youths with a court referral reporting offences and arrests was highest for drug offences, for males, for whites and for blacks. Retrospective ages of onset agreed best with prospective ages for drug offences, Asians and whites. More Asians than blacks or whites failed retrospectively to report offences that had been reported prospectively. CONCLUSIONS: The validity of self-reports of offending was high, especially for drug offences, for males and for whites. Contrary to prior research, validity was high for black males. It was lowest for Asian females. Sex and race differences in validity held up after controlling for socioeconomic status. Differential validity probability did not reflect police bias.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Retrospective analysis of psychomotor agitation, hypomanic symptoms, and suicidal ideation in unipolar depression.

In bipolar depression, psychomotor agitation is relatively common and often is associated with other noneuphoric hypomanic symptoms and suicidal ideation. Our goal in this retrospective study was to ascertain the co-occurrence of agitation, bipolar features, and suicidal ideation in unipolar disorder. We retrospectively evaluated 314 inpatients with DSM-IV major depressive disorder (MDD) and no other Axis I diagnosis with the National Institutes of Mental Health (NIMH) Life Chart Method and the Operational Criteria for Psychotic Illness (OPCRIT) checklist to ascertain their symptom profiles across all episodes. Univariate and multivariate comparisons were performed between the subgroups with and without psychomotor agitation (OPCRIT item 23> or =1). Agitated depression (AD, a major depressive episode with psychomotor agitation) was present in 19% of the sample. Compared to nonagitated counterparts, patients with AD were older and had lower educational levels and more dysphoria, insomnia, positive thought disorder, and psychotic manifestations. Hypomanic symptoms other than agitation were relatively uncommon (<10%) and more represented in subjects with AD. No significant differences emerged between AD and control groups with respect to most bipolar validators (gender, familiarity, recurrence). Patients with AD had higher levels of suicidal ideation than non-AD controls; however, such a difference was no longer significant after controlling for psychotic features. Excessive self-reproach, early awakening, diurnal changes, poor appetite, and hypomanic symptoms were independently associated with suicidal thoughts in nonpsychotic MDD. Incomplete information on drug treatment, exclusion of patients with Axis I comorbidity, and tertiary care setting were the most important limitations of the study. Although we failed to support the bipolar nature of MDD-AD by common validators, probably because we used a more heterogeneous definition of agitation compared to similar studies, our data confirm the association of agitation with hypomanic symptoms and suicidal thoughts in major depression, and emphasize the complex phenomenology of AD in an inpatient setting.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Hard palate resection, microvascular reconstruction, and prosthetic restoration: a 14-year retrospective analysis.

BACKGROUND: This retrospective analysis was conducted to evaluate self-reported patient and clinician assessed functional outcomes of patients who have undergone ablative hard palate oncologic resection and microvascular free-flap reconstruction with and without maxillofacial prosthetic intervention. METHODS: All Head and Neck Surgery Service, Plastic and Reconstruction Surgery Service, and Dental Service charts and progress notes entered into the Institutional Health Care Information System of 57 patients who underwent hard palate resection and microvascular reconstruction at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC) between January 1, 1988, and December 31, 2001 were reviewed retrospectively by three maxillofacial prosthodontists (BJB, JMH, IMZ). Prosthetic and nonprosthetic rehabilitation outcomes for each patient were reported as having normal; limited; or poor esthetics and function according to each prosthodontist's clinical evaluations; patients' self-perceptions; and feedback from friends, family members, and/or spouse. Speech intelligibility was determined in the same manner but reported as normal, hypernasal, and hyponasal. RESULTS: Most of the 26 prosthetically rehabilitated patients were reported as having normal esthetics (81%), normal function (77%), normal speech (96%), and were able to return to per oral full diets (81%) without any restrictions. CONCLUSIONS: Acceptable oral rehabilitation outcomes were reported for most prosthetically rehabilitated free-flap patients. Normal speech can be anticipated with a high degree of certainty, and a high percentage of prosthetically restored free-flap patients achieved per oral diets.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Assessment of biochemical markers of bone metabolism in relation to the occurrence of fracture: a retrospective and prospective population-based study of women.

We have in a population-based setting evaluated biochemical markers of bone metabolism in 328 women, aged 40-80 years, and related it to contents of bone mineral measurements and the retrospective and prospective presence of fracture. The participants were recruited from the city population files. Serum samples for analysis of osteocalcin (Oc), procollagen I carboxy-terminal extension peptide (PICP), and carboxy-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (ICTP) were taken, and forearm bone mineral content (BMC) was measured by single photon absorptiometry (SPA). Fracture history was recorded, and the information was verified and supplemented from both radiologic and orthopedic files. Five years later the registration of fractures was repeated. At the initial investigation, Oc was 23% lower in women who had sustained a fracture (n = 37) within 6 years before measurement (6.3 +/- 3.6 microgram/l vs 8.2 +/- 4.2 microgram/l (p = 0.006)), after adjusting for age and BMC difference. PICP and ICTP were not different from values in the women without fracture. However, in women aged 70-80 years with a fracture sustained during the previous 6 years, PICP was lower (128 +/- 32 microgram/l vs 144 +/- 34 microgram/l, p = 0.046). Oc and ICTP were significantly correlated to age and BMC (Oc-age r = 0.36, Oc-BMC r = -0.31, ICTP-age r = 0.44, ICTP-BMC r = -0.24). The correlations of PICP were weaker. Prospectively, logistic regression gave an odds ratio (OR) of 1.8 (p = 0.015) for a low PICP and fracture susceptibility, at a change of 1 SD, independent of age and BMC. In the age bracket 70-80, the odds ratio was 2.4 (p = 0.036). The odds ratio for ICTP, independent of age and BMC, was 1.9 (P = 0.043) for 1 SD decrease and subsequent fracture risk. We concluded that women who had sustained at least one recent fracture had an altered bone turnover with decreased bone formation but an unaltered resorption. Women with retrospectively registered fractures also sustained subsequent fractures. A decrease from the mean of the collagen markers PICP and ICTP was associated with an increased risk for future fracture. Utilizing these biochemical markers of bone metabolism in a female population, PICP and ICTP had a similar influence on the risk of future fracture as forearm BMC (OR = 1.6, p = 0.03).

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Retrospective reports of college students' childhood problems.

College students and a subsample of their mothers and fathers participated in a study examining their retrospective reports of childhood emotional and behavioral problems experienced by college students. College students and their mothers and fathers exhibited moderate correspondence in their recollection of internalizing and externalizing problems that college students experienced during their childhood. In contrast, college students tended to endorse significantly greater levels of both internalizing and externalizing problems relative to their mothers and fathers. Current psychological symptoms predicted the greater endorsement of childhood internalizing and externalizing problems by college students and the greater endorsement of college students' childhood internalizing problems by their mothers. Further, college students' current perceptions of their parents predicted their endorsement of childhood internalizing problems, and college students' current masculinity and femininity predicted their endorsement of childhood externalizing problems. Results of this study emphasized the importance of noting factors that may be related to retrospective reports.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

CO2 laser in otolaryngology-head and neck surgery: a retrospective analysis of complications.

A retrospective review was conducted of all patients undergoing CO2 laser surgery by members of the Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery at Northwestern University Medical School from January 1, 1980 through December 31, 1981; 204 cases were identified and all are included in this report. Early in our department's experience with laser surgery, an endotracheal tube fire occurred. This incident precipitated a departmental review of complications associated with the use of the CO2 laser and resulted in the formulation of a laser safety protocol. All patients in this group were treated under the directives of this protocol; the operative complication rate was low. This retrospective analysis of complications associated with the use of the CO2 laser under a strictly applied protocol demonstrates the relative safety associated with judicious use of this instrument.

Equipment Safety↗
PubMed1977

Malignant neoplasms of the nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses: (a retrospective study).

This study presents a retrospective look at 115 patients evaluated here from 1957 to 1974. In this series, 57 percent were males and 43 percent females, 84 percent were Caucasian and 16 percent Negro. Lesions confined to or originating in the antrum made up 67 percent while nonantral lesions were 33 percent. Mean age at diagnosis was 59.1 years. Smoking and drinking history did not appear to be contributory. Antral lesions were retrospectively staged according to Sisson's TNM classification. Sixteen tumor types were involved, with the most common being epidermoid. Diagnosis was most often made by intranasal or Caldwell-Luc biopsy. Most frequent symptoms, as well as earliest symptoms, were nasal obstruction, localized pain, and epistaxis. Average duration of symptoms was 6.4 months. Therapy was generally in the form of radiotherapy alone, preoperative radiotherapy and surgery, surgery and postoperative radiotherapy, or surgery alone. Local recurrences occurred in 44 percent of antral lesions and 50 percent of non-antral lesions. Regional (cervical) nodal metastases developed in 25 percent of antral lesions and 11 percent of non-antral lesions. Distant metastases developed in 30 percent of antral cases and 35 percent of non-antral cases. Five-year survival was 32 percent (35 percent determinate) for the total group. The more advanced the staging of the antral lesions, the worse the prognosis. Best survival figures were in the areas of preoperative radiotherapy and surgery at 38 percent (43 percent) and surgery alone at 56 percent (59 percent).

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Is sphincter electromyography a helpful investigation in the diagnosis of multiple system atrophy? A retrospective study with pathological diagnosis.

Sphincter electromyography (spEMG) is often used as an ancillary test when multiple system atrophy (MSA) is suspected. Our aim was to determine the clinical features associated with spEMG being performed, the influence of the result on the final clinical diagnosis, and its utility as a clinical investigation. A retrospective audit of all cases in the Queen Square Brain Bank between 1989 and 2002 was performed. The clinical features and diagnostic accuracy were compared between patients in whom spEMG was performed and those in whom it was not. From 845 sets of complete clinical records, we identified 37 (4.4%) cases that had been investigated with spEMG. Thirty of these cases had a pathological diagnosis of MSA. Of these 30, 24 had abnormal spEMGs, 5 had a borderline result, and only 1 had a normal spEMG. Sixty-six cases had pathologically proven MSA but no spEMG. Those investigated with spEMG were younger at disease onset (P < 0.001), more frequently male (P = 0.03), and more likely to have had other investigations performed. They had a greater incidence of pyramidal tract signs at final clinical diagnosis, and the final clinical diagnostic accuracy was higher (P = 0.04). Due to the retrospective nature of the study, balanced populations for calculation of sensitivity and specificity were not available. In this selected series of pathologically confirmed cases, investigation with spEMG was one of several factors associated with improved clinical diagnostic accuracy. A normal spEMG is unlikely in pathologically proven MSA, at least in cases with a mean symptom duration of more than 5 years when the test is performed.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Accuracy of retrospective reports of infections during pregnancy.

A large body of research suggests a relationship between maternal influenza and the development of schizophrenia in the adult offspring. Some researchers, however, have questioned this association. A study by Crow and Done (1992) asserts that prenatal exposure to influenza does not cause schizophrenia. The methodology employed by Crow and Done may account for their null findings. Crow and colleagues assessed influenza by asking mothers at the time of birth to recall influenza infections experienced during pregnancy. Such retrospective recall may bias reporting. We assessed influenza symptoms during pregnancy in a group of 136 mothers at the twenty-fifth week of pregnancy, and again one or two days after birth. We compared accounts of influenza at the twenty-fifth week to recollection of influenza after birth. Results suggest that mothers tend to under-report infections when recalling infections after birth. Retrospective assessment of influenza symptoms at birth may be an inaccurate method of assessing influenza during pregnancy.

Female↗