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PubMed1991

Incubation and the persistence of fixation in problem solving.

Extra work on unsolved problems may lead to more improvement if the new work is delayed rather than undertaken immediately after initial solution attempts. Such a result constitutes incubation in problem solving. "Unconscious work" on a problem, commonly assumed to be responsible for incubation effects, may not be necessary to observe the phenomenon. We hypothesize that fixation, a block to successful problem solving, may develop during initial solution attempts and persist, interfering with immediate extra work more than with delayed extra work. Five experiments are reported in which fixation was induced to prevent optimal performance on the initial test of Remote Associates Test (RAT) problems (e.g., Mednick, 1962). After the fixation manipulation in three of the experiments, the effects of incubation intervals were examined by retesting the fixated problems. Both fixation (poorer initial problem-solving performance) and incubation (more improvement after a delayed retest than an immediate retest) were found in all the experiments which tested for the effects. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, misleading distractors were presented alongside the RAT problems during the initial test of the problems to cause fixation. In Experiment 4, a block of paired associates--pairing the RAT words with the misleading distractors prior to problem solving--successfully induced fixation, indicating that the distractors affected memory retrieval. In Experiment 5, a trial-by-trial technique allowed fixation and incubation to be induced and tested separately for each item. All of our findings of incubation effects appear to have depended upon the initial induction of fixation. Although the experiments may not be representative of all naturally occurring cases of incubation, they provide a methodology for the study of fixation and incubation effects in problem solving in the laboratory.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Priming and aging: further evidence of preserved memory function.

Priming effects in word-stem completion were compared with cued recall in young and older adults. Cued recall showed large effects of age and also of levels of processing, but these variables had little influence on priming in word-stem completion. Free recall showed large effects of age as well as superior recall for words that had been generated rather than read at study, but priming in word-stem completion was little influenced by age, and it was greater for words that had been read at study rather than generated. These findings were interpreted as providing further evidence that age-related impairments in memory performance are greatly reduced in implicit compared with explicit tests. They also provide convergent evidence for classifying word-stem completion as a data-driven rather than conceptually driven task.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

[Context-dependence of implicit and explicit memory characteristics].

The present experiments explore whether repetition priming in a word-stem completion task is context-dependent. In the first experiment, the environmental context was changed or remained constant at the testing stage. Implicit memory performance did not reveal any effects of environmental context. When tested by free recall, however, the same subjects showed an environmental congruency effect. On the other hand, effects of a change in presentation modality were restricted to implicit memory measures. In the second experiment, self-awareness was manipulated to create congruent or incongruent internal contexts at the testing stage. Performance on the word-stem completion task was seen to be influenced by internal contextual information. This pattern of results corroborates a processing account of implicit memory phenomena. Implicit and explicit expressions of memory utilize episodic information, but in a different way.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

[Anxiety in the context of cognitive semantic processes].

In this experiment anxiety is understood as an indicator for specific structures in the semantic memory. In order to prove this hypothesis a number of positive (12) and negative (11) events were associated. Furthermore the events have been classified the scale "anxious--non anxious". In the experiment 69 subjects took part. Previously the subjects completed the STAI-Trait-part; these data were used to divide the subjects into groups of high (HA) and low (LA) anxious persons (median of the sample). Those associations were analysed in a qualitative and quantitative way. ANOVAS were calculated as well as overlap coefficients and Type-Token-Ratios. HA have more negative associations. LA produce more positive associations. LA show a significantly higher overlap coefficient with positive events, respectively a smaller TTR. The results are discussed in context with psycholinguistic theories.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Priming word recognition with orthographic neighbors: effects of relative prime-target frequency.

Four lexical decision experiments were performed with an orthographic priming paradigm in which test words were preceded by orthographically related or unrelated prime words. When prime words were presented for 350 ms without a mask, it was observed that primes that are lower frequency orthographic neighbors of the target interfered with target processing relative to an unrelated condition. When primes were higher frequency neighbors of the target, no interference or facilitation was observed. On the other hand, with briefly presented masked primes, interference was observed with higher frequency prime words. Finally, facilitatory effects in masked repetition priming were obtained with both high- and low-frequency prime-target pairs. The results are interpreted in terms of activation and selection processes operating in visual word recognition.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

Associative symmetry in the PA learning of retarded and nonrerarded children.

Mentally retarded and nonretarded children learned pairs of pictures in a single-function order (A and B terms of each pair were in the same position throughout) or in a double-function order (all items were re-paired and served as A and B terms). Associative symmetry was demonstrated by all groups when the lists were presented single-function; forward asymmetry was demonstrated when the list was presented double-function. When categorized pairs were presented double-function, items that were correctly associated by category produced symmetry; items that were correctly associated but not by category produced forward asymmetry. The possible influence of single vs. multiple associations on associative symmetry was discussed.

Child↗
PubMed1977

Sentence mediation and stimulus blocking in free recall.

In a two-phasing training study, EMR adolescents were initially provided with sentences linking each pair of 2 words in a 20-word list to be free recalled. In a second phase, subjects were required to create and verbalize their own sentences. This sentence-mediation condition was compared with (a) one in which items were presented in the same fixed pairs from trial-to-trial, but without sentences and (b) a group that received items in changing pairs. Results indicated superiority of both sentence-mediation and fixed-pairs treatments in comparison to the changing-pairs condition on both correct recall and subjective organization. Sentences did not facilitate recall more than did consistent ordering. The results were discussed in the context of the growing evidence that providing input structure can remediate organization deficits in retarded persons.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

Cognitive processes and academic achievement in EMR adolescents.

Twelve cognitive process variables were investigated as predictors of reading and arithmetic achievement and studied for internal structure, with 115 EMR adolescent subjects. Stepwise regression and factor analyses were employed to study prediction and structure, respectively. Memory variables were the most important predictors of reading. They were also involved in arithmetic but to a lesser extent. The data suggested that the ability to generate and utilize strategies facilitating the recall of unstructured material as well as the capacity to be sensitive to strategy-relevant structure embedded in stimuli were important prerequisites for the acquisition of reading skills. An oddity task, measuring the ability to maintain the same relational focus for successive applications to new stimulus material, was found to be most pertinent for predicting arithmetic computational skills.

Achievement↗
PubMed1991

Knowledge and ability factors underlying simple learning by accretion.

In this study, the relationships between simple learning by accretion and various cognitive ability variables were explored. Computerized tests of five sources of individual differences were administered to a sample of 714 Air Force recruits, along with a trigram-English word paired-associate task, which was presented as a foreign language vocabulary learning task. Subjects were assigned at random to one of three groups: control, semantic elaboration, or interactive imagery. Subjects in the semantic elaboration group were instructed to generate sentences to link the trigram and word in a memorable way. Subjects in the interactive imagery group were given the additional instruction of visualizing the generated sentence. Trigrams (CVCs) varied in meaningfulness across the two lists of eight pairs in the task. Results showed that meaningfulness and strategy had the expected main effects on learning and that strategy interacted with verbal knowledge in initial learning so that learners with more knowledge benefitted more than learners with less knowledge edge. Regression analyses showed that a representative measure from each proposed source made a significant unique contribution to the explained variance in paired-associate learning.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Induced arousal and orienting tasks as determinants of intentional recall.

In this study, the author examined the effects of intention to learn, noise, and different types of orienting tasks on short-term and long-term recall for 15 Hindi paired-associates. Intention to learn improved recall, as did encoding of semantic features, and noise impaired both short-term and long-term recall. The analysis of short-term recall scores indicated that there were no significant interactions between these factors, but the analysis of long-term recall scores indicated that there were significant interactions between noise and orienting tasks and between intentionality and orienting tasks.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Age, rate and instructional conditions: empirical support against the pacing variable.

The present study was an attempt to determine if the pacing effect was an artifact of the confounding of presentation rate and total learning time. Two presentation rates were factorially varied with three instructional conditions for two different age groups in a paired-associate and free-recall task. The results of the study replicated the pacing effect when learning time was deliberately confounded. When total learning time was equated for the presentation rates the pacing effect was not replicated, demonstrating that pacing is an artifact. It was suggested that the total time principle, not pacing, was the viable explanatory concept. The results of the manipulation of instructional conditions suggest that it is inappropriate to assume that a set of instructions will result in equivalent performance for both young and old samples.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

Processing of interactive and noninteractive pictures in PA learning by retarded persons.

Retarded persons, at two MA levels, were exposed to a list of paired-associates (PAs) in which the stimulus terms were picture compounds of one animate and one inanimate object. One-half of the subjects in each MA group learned the associations with the stimulus components presented in meaningful interaction, and half learned the associations with the components depicted in noninteraction. Stimulus interaction facilitated list acquisition by the higher MA but not by the lower MA subjects. Transfer tests following PA learning indicated that the interactive stimulus components had been processed as units by the higher MA subjects, suggesting that these individuals may have spontaneously elaborated the interactive-stimulus components.

Cognition↗
PubMed1977

Verbal learning dysfunction with combined centre median and amygdala lesions.

Stereotaxic lesions in either or both amygdala did not impair verbal learning ability (presented by ear as a paired-associates test). Centre median lesions alone did not impair this form of learning; however, when combined with a left amygdala lesion a significant decrease in scores occurred which persisted for up to two years after operation. The data support a hypothesis that medial thalamic structures have alerting functions in learning mechanisms.

Amygdala↗
PubMed1976

The effects of experimentally induced changes in self-concept on associative learning.

It has been hypothesized that self-concept influences ability to learn. This experiment systematically manipulated the self-concepts of learners regarding their abilities to learn a foreign language and measured their subsequent learning of a synthetic foreign language vocabulary list. Eleven Ss were randomly assigned to each of three groups: self-concept raised, self-concept lowered, control. Ss were college freshman who were not enrolled in a foreign language course or had not previously taken more than one semester of a foreign language. Self-concepts were measured as self-description of ability to learn a foreign language. Self-concepts were raised or lowered by providing false scores on a foreign language aptitude test. Learning was measured as performance on a paired-associates task utilizing random shapes and CVCs. Ss with lowered self-concepts learned more slowly than control Ss or Ss with raised self-concepts.

Achievement↗
PubMed1979

Rekitting the Wechsler Paired-Associate Task: the Waterford Index.

The Waterford Index provides a new scoring system for the Wechsler paired-associate task. Item performances across successive trials were coded so as to reflect the psychological phenomena of learning, forgetting and item effects (N = 50). The Index describes two rules for differentiating between cases of cognitive impairment and non-impairment. Rule 1 contrasts the respective contributions of learning and forgetting. Rule 2 takes account of cases characterized by a high proportion of correct responses. Against a criterion index based on performances on other psychological tests of organic dysfunction, the Waterford Index yielded higher predictive efficiencies than associated with other Wechsler indices, intelligence, and age.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

Extroversion and reminiscence following a frustrating paired-associate task.

Two experiments were reported relating extroversion to reminiscence following a frustrating paired-associate (PA) task. In the first experiment a group of 30 male and female college students was randomly assigned to one of two tasks in which they learned a PA list of high or low stimulus similarity. All PA lists were mixed lists composed of half solvable and half unsolvable (randomized) stimulus-response items. Recall for solvable items was tested immediately, 15 min, and 30 min after criterion was reached. Results indicated a significant difference between high and low stimulus similarity with superior recall for low similarity. The predicted reminiscence effect for high stimulus similarity recall was present but not significant. Comparison of recall scores for extroverts and introverts indicated a significant difference in recall favoring the introverts. The second experiment made a similar test of recall for two groups of S s that had been established as extreme extroverts or introverts (N = 8 in each group). The superiority of recall for introverts was replicated, and a reminiscence effect was found for the extroverts. Results were discussed in relation to Eysenck's formulation and previous conflicting results.

Extraversion, Psychological↗