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PubMed2001

The effects of group music therapy on mood states and cohesiveness in adult oncology patients.

The purpose of the current investigation was to examine the efficacy of a music therapy protocol on mood states and levels of group cohesiveness in adult oncology patients. Eleven oncology patients in 2 groups (ages 30 to 84 years) took part in the study over a 10-week period of time (10 participants completed the study). During that period, participants took part in 8 music therapy sessions consisting of 2 types of interventions: (a) 4 "music making" sessions (where the mechanism for change included the process of making music) and (b) 4 "music responding" sessions (where the mechanism included the process of responding to music). The two types of music therapy sessions and their effectiveness on improving mood states and group cohesiveness were examined. The Profile of Mood States-Short Form (POMS-SF) was used to assess changes in participants' mood states. A content analysis, attendance records, and a questionnaire were used to assess levels of group cohesiveness. Results showed significant improvement in mood state scores (from presession levels to postsessions levels) after involvement in all music therapy sessions. Similar significant findings were found within each of the "music making" and "music responding" conditions but no differences were found when comparisons were made between those conditions. No statistically significant effects were found with respect to group cohesiveness measures. Study implications and future research directions are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

The relationship between type of degree and professional status in clinical music therapists.

The purpose of this descriptive study was to: (a) examine the relationship between the construct, Type of Music Therapy Degree, and 5 other constructs: Job Satisfaction, Job Longevity, Level of Promotion, Job Responsibilities, and Geographical Location; and (b) explore the interrelationships among the 5 constructs other than Type of Music Therapy Degree. Questionnaires were mailed to 616 clinical music therapists. The response rate was 35% (N = 218). Ten variables defining the 6 constructs were examined for statistically significant and meaningful relationships: highest music therapy degree achieved, average job satisfaction rating, length of time as a music therapist, length of time in present job, average length of time in jobs, total number of jobs, total number of promotions across jobs, number of present duties, number of hours presently working, and region in which work. Results indicated that a significant relationship existed between highest music therapy degree achieved and 3 variables: length of time as a music therapist, total number of jobs, and region in which work. Follow-up comparisons revealed that those respondents with a Doctoral Degree had been employed at significantly more jobs than those with a Bachelor's degree. Also, those with a Master's degree in music therapy had stayed significantly longer in the field than those with a Bachelor's degree in music therapy. A follow-up analysis with the third variable, region in which work, indicated that the highest proportion of respondents in each region had obtained a Bachelor's degree in music therapy. Of the 8 significant relationships obtained among the other 9 variables, 4 variables defining the construct Job Longevity appeared to play a central role in the relationships among the variables.

Educational Status↗
PubMed2003

Ira Maximilian Altshuler: psychiatrist and pioneer music therapist.

The purpose of this study was to examine the life of Ira Maximilian Altshuler, psychiatrist and pioneer music therapist. In 1938, Dr. Altshuler initiated one of the first large-scale music therapy programs for mentally ill persons in the country at Detroit's Eloise Hospital. His innovative programs combined psychoanalytic techniques and music therapy methods specifically designed for use with large groups of clients. He later trained some of the first music therapy interns in the country, including Carol Collins, who served for many years as Professor of Music Therapy at Wayne State University, and Esther Goetz Gilliland, who later became President of NAMT. Dr. Altshuler promoted the practice and profession tirelessly, speaking to numerous audiences over the years and writing 19 articles about music therapy. Altshuler participated in the National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT) organizational meeting held in New York City in 1950. An active member of the organization for many years, he served on the Research Committee and hosted the 1955 national NAMT conference in Detroit. Even after Altshuler's retirement from Eloise Hospital in 1963, he remained active in numerous civic, music, and music therapy activities until his death 5 year later. Ira Altshuler should be remembered along with other music therapists from the time-Willem Van de Wall, Harriet Ayer Seymour and others-who vigorously embraced and advanced the status of the profession.

History, 20th Century↗
PubMed2003

A survey of music therapy methods and their role in the treatment of early elementary school children with ADHD.

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has recently been receiving more frequent attention in professional circles and in the press, and some sources would assert that its occurrence in the general population is consistently growing. Because music therapists often work with preschool and school-age children, it is likely that they will increasingly be treating children with a diagnosis of ADHD. However, there is little in the music therapy literature about music therapy treatment for ADHD. The purpose of this survey was to ascertain what music therapy methods are being used for children with an ADHD diagnosis, how effective this treatment is perceived to be, and the role that music therapy treatment plays in relation to other forms of treatment. Results of the survey indicated that music therapists often utilize a number of music therapy methods in the treatment of children with ADHD. They often address multiple types of goals, and treatment outcome is generally perceived to be favorable. Referrals for music therapy services are received from a number of different sources, although parents and teachers were indicated to be the most frequent referral sources. Most children with ADHD receiving music therapy services also receive other forms of treatment, with an overwhelming majority receiving medication. The implications of these results are discussed, and areas for continuing research into the use of music therapy with ADHD are identified.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
PubMed2006

Use of preferred music to reduce emotional distress and symptom activity during radiation therapy.

Music therapy has decreased anxiety levels in many medical settings. This randomized clinical trial examined the effectiveness of a music listening intervention, delivered by a board-certified music therapist, in patients undergoing curative radiation therapy (RT). Emotional distress (anxiety, depression, and treatment-related distress) and symptoms (fatigue and pain) were measured at baseline, mid-treatment, and end of treatment in 63 patients undergoing RT. Although patients who listened to self-selected music reported lower anxiety and treatment-related distress, there was a decline in these outcomes for patients in both groups over the course of RT. Depression, fatigue, and pain were not appreciably affected by music therapy. Within the music group, there was a significant correlation between number of times music was used/week and the change in treatment-related distress, suggesting that higher doses of music produced greater declines in distress. While these findings provided some support for the use of music in reducing distress during RT, further research demonstrating clear differences between intervention and control conditions is needed. Physical symptoms were not affected by the use of music over the course of RT.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Foetal response to music and voice.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether prenatal exposure to music and voice alters foetal behaviour and whether foetal response to music differs from human voice. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A prospective observational study was conducted in 20 normal term pregnant mothers. Ten foetuses were exposed to music and voice for 15 s at different sound pressure levels to find out the optimal setting for the auditory stimulation. Music, voice and sham were played to another 10 foetuses via a headphone on the maternal abdomen. The sound pressure level was 105 db and 94 db for music and voice, respectively. Computerised assessment of foetal heart rate and activity were recorded. 90 actocardiograms were obtained for the whole group. One way anova followed by posthoc (Student-Newman-Keuls method) analysis was used to find if there is significant difference in foetal response to music and voice versus sham. RESULTS: Foetuses responded with heart rate acceleration and motor response to both music and voice. This was statistically significant compared to sham. There was no significant difference between the foetal heart rate acceleration to music and voice. CONCLUSION: Prenatal exposure to music and voice alters the foetal behaviour. No difference was detected in foetal response to music and voice.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2001

Similarity, invariance, and musical variation.

Perceptual similarity underlies a number of important psychological properties of musical materials, including perceptual invariance under transformation, categorization, recognition, and the sense of familiarity. Mental processes involved in the perception of musical similarity may be an integral part of the functional logic of music composition and thus underly important aspects of musical experience. How much and in what ways can musical materials be varied and still be considered as perceptually related or as belonging to the same category? The notions of musical material, musical variation, perceptual similarity and invariance, and form-bearing dimensions are considered in this light. Recent work on similarity perception has demonstrated that the transformation space for a given musical material is limited by several factors ranging from degree of match of the values of auditory attributes of the events composing the sequences to their relations of various levels of abstraction and to the degree that the transformation respects the grammar of the musical system within which the material was composed. These notions and results are considered in the light of future directions of research, particularly concerning the role of similarity and invariance in the understanding of musical form during listening.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed2001

How many music centers are in the brain?

When reviewing the literature on brain substrates of music processing, a puzzling variety of findings can be stated. The traditional view of a left-right dichotomy of brain organization--assuming that in contrast to language, music is primarily processed in the right hemisphere--was challenged 20 years ago, when the influence of music education on brain lateralization was demonstrated. Modern concepts emphasize the modular organization of music cognition. According to this viewpoint, different aspects of music are processed in different, although partly overlapping neuronal networks of both hemispheres. However, even when isolating a single "module," such as, for example, the perception of contours, the interindividual variance of brain substrates is enormous. To clarify the factors contributing to this variability, we conducted a longitudinal experiment comparing the effects of procedural versus explicit music teaching on brain networks. We demonstrated that cortical activation during music processing reflects the auditory "learning biography," the personal experiences accumulated over time. Listening to music, learning to play an instrument, formal instruction, and professional training result in multiple, in many instances multisensory, representations of music, which seem to be partly interchangeable and rapidly adaptive. In summary, as soon as we consider "real music" apart from laboratory experiments, we have to expect individually formed and quickly adaptive brain substrates, including widely distributed neuronal networks in both hemispheres.

Brain↗
PubMed2005

Brain organization for music processing.

Research on how the brain processes music is emerging as a rich and stimulating area of investigation of perception, memory, emotion, and performance. Results emanating from both lesion studies and neuroimaging techniques are reviewed and integrated for each of these musical functions. We focus our attention on the common core of musical abilities shared by musicians and nonmusicians alike. Hence, the effect of musical training on brain plasticity is examined in a separate section, after a review of the available data regarding music playing and reading skills that are typically cultivated by musicians. Finally, we address a currently debated issue regarding the putative existence of music-specific neural networks. Unfortunately, due to scarcity of research on the macrostructure of music organization and on cultural differences, the musical material under focus is at the level of the musical phrase, as typically used in Western popular music.

Affect↗
PubMed2005

Brain networks that track musical structure.

As the functional neuroimaging literature grows, it becomes increasingly apparent that music and musical activities engage diverse regions of the brain. In this paper I discuss two studies to illustrate that exactly which brain areas are observed to be responsive to musical stimuli and tasks depends on the tasks and the methods used to describe the tasks and the stimuli. In one study, subjects listened to polyphonic music and were asked to either orient their attention selectively to individual instruments or in a divided or holistic manner across multiple instruments. The network of brain areas that was recruited changed subtly with changes in the task instructions. The focus of the second study was to identify brain regions that follow the pattern of movement of a continuous melody through the tonal space defined by the major and minor keys of Western tonal music. Such an area was identified in the rostral medial prefrontal cortex. This observation is discussed in the context of other neuroimaging studies that implicate this region in inwardly directed mental states involving decisions about the self, autobiographical memory, the cognitive regulation of emotion, affective responses to musical stimuli, and familiarity judgments about musical stimuli. Together with observations that these regions are among the last to atrophy in Alzheimer disease, and that these patients appear to remain responsive to autobiographically salient musical stimuli, very early evidence is emerging from the literature for the hypothesis that the rostral medial prefrontal cortex is a node that is important for binding music with memories within a broader music-responsive network.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2005

Temporal entrainment of cognitive functions: musical mnemonics induce brain plasticity and oscillatory synchrony in neural networks underlying memory.

In a series of experiments, we have begun to investigate the effect of music as a mnemonic device on learning and memory and the underlying plasticity of oscillatory neural networks. We used verbal learning and memory tests (standardized word lists, AVLT) in conjunction with electroencephalographic analysis to determine differences between verbal learning in either a spoken or musical (verbal materials as song lyrics) modality. In healthy adults, learning in both the spoken and music condition was associated with significant increases in oscillatory synchrony across all frequency bands. A significant difference between the spoken and music condition emerged in the cortical topography of the learning-related synchronization. When using EEG measures as predictors during learning for subsequent successful memory recall, significantly increased coherence (phase-locked synchronization) within and between oscillatory brain networks emerged for music in alpha and gamma bands. In a similar study with multiple sclerosis patients, superior learning and memory was shown in the music condition when controlled for word order recall, and subjects were instructed to sing back the word lists. Also, the music condition was associated with a significant power increase in the low-alpha band in bilateral frontal networks, indicating increased neuronal synchronization. Musical learning may access compensatory pathways for memory functions during compromised PFC functions associated with learning and recall. Music learning may also confer a neurophysiological advantage through the stronger synchronization of the neuronal cell assemblies underlying verbal learning and memory. Collectively our data provide evidence that melodic-rhythmic templates as temporal structures in music may drive internal rhythm formation in recurrent cortical networks involved in learning and memory.

Brain↗
PubMed2004

Right temporal lobe activation when listening to emotionally significant music.

The cerebral activation when normal elderly participants (6 women, 6 men, M age = 70 years) listened to self-selected emotionally significant music was investigated. Musical memories and preferences were discussed in an interview, and a piece of music with great emotional significance to the participant was selected and later played during measurement of the regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). Measurements were made during silence, individually selected emotional music, and standard neutral music. The right temporal lobe showed a significant (p < .01) increase in rCBF when the emotional music was compared to silence. A temporal lobe asymmetry (right > left) during emotional music was also significant (p < .01). A decrease in the left prefrontal areas reached significance (p < .05) when standard music was compared to silence. For the emotional music, the right prefrontal area showed a decrease (p < .05). Emotional music thus activates right temporal and deactivates prefrontal regions in the right hemisphere.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

The effect of music on preoperative sedation and the bispectral index.

We assessed the effect of music on the level of sedation and the electroencephalograph bispectral index (BIS) during the preoperative period. Fifty-four ASA physical status I-II patients, scheduled for elective septo-rhinoplastic surgery, were included in the study. Subjects were assigned to receive either music (music group; n = 28) or no music (control group; n = 26) during the preoperative period. Sedative premedication was provided with midazolam 0.08 mg/kg IM. Observer's Assessment of Alertness/Sedation Scales (OAAS) scores and BIS values were recorded at specific time intervals. In the control group, there were more patients with an OAAS score of 1 than in the music group at 30 min after midazolam injection. In addition, there were more patients with an OAAS score of 2 in the control group than in the music group at 30-50 min. However, there were significantly more patients with an OAAS score of 3 in the music group than in the control group at 20-50 min. BIS values of the music group were also smaller than the control group at 30 and 40 min. BIS values were significantly decreased from baseline values at 10-50 min in the music group, whereas BIS values decreased at 30-50 min in the control group. In conclusion, listening to music during midazolam premedication is associated with an increase in sedation level in the preoperative period as reflected by a lower BIS value.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Music effects on EEG in intrusive and withdrawn mothers with depressive symptoms.

The EEG patterns of 48 intrusive and withdrawn mothers with depressive symptoms were assessed following a 20-minute music session to determine if the music had mood-altering effects. Half the mothers listened to classical music while half listened to rock music. Intrusive mothers were expected to have more positive responses and more symmetrical EEG following the calming classical music, while withdrawn mothers were expected to have a more positive response and symmetrical EEG following the energizing rock music. Although more positive EEGs were noted for rock music in both groups, only the withdrawn mothers showed a significant change in EEG toward symmetry following rock music, and only the intrusive mothers showed a decrease in cortisol levels following the rock music. Their State Anxiety Inventory (STAI) anxiety levels also decreased, while the Profile of Mood States (POMS) depressed mood levels decreased significantly for all four groups following music.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Music can enhance exercise-induced sympathetic dominancy assessed by heart rate variability.

Many studies have been conducted on physiological responses of music, yielding controversial results. In the present study, we examined whether music affects the exercise-induced changes in the autonomic nervous system activity in twelve healthy female college students. On the first day, the subjects were asked to rest, exercise, and then rest for 15 min, respectively. On the second day, they were asked to rest with music, exercise, and then rest with music for 15 min, respectively. Heart rate variability was measured for the pre- and post-exercise periods. Music was given according to subjects' preferences using a vibroacoustic apparatus (body sonic system), i.e. a chair on which subjects laid and felt low-pitch sounds by their body in addition to listening music. With music, ratio of low frequency to high frequency component of heart rate variability (LH/HF) was significantly increased after exercise as compared with before exercise (p < 0.01). By contrast, the changes in LH/HF were not significant without music (p > 0.05). It is suggested that after exercise in which sympathetic nerve activity is dominant, preferred music synchronizes with the activated physical response, further promoting the response and increasing sympathetic nerve activity. Combining music with exercise is therefore not only enjoyable in terms of mood but also may promote physiological excitation and enhance physical activation.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

[The effects of self-selected music on anxiety and pain during burn dressing changes].

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of music therapy on state anxiety and pain among patients undergoing burn dressing changes. METHOD: A convenience sample of 32 adult burn patients who were eligible and provided consent were included in the study which was a quasi-experimental study of a nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design. Fifteen patients in the control group received the routine burn dressing changes but 17 patients in the experimental group listened to self-selected music through headphones connected to a CD player during burn dressing changes for three days. All subjects of the music group chose the type of music that would relax them. Before and after burn dressing changes, subjects completed the State Anxiety Inventory and self-report of pain scores. RESULT: There was a significant reduction in state anxiety before and after burn dressing changes in those who received music therapy in contrast to those who did not receive music therapy. The music group reported lower pain scores before and after burn dressing changes than did the non-music group. CONCLUSION: These findings indicate that music therapy composed of self-selected music is a valuable intervention for the treatment of pain and anxiety in patients undergoing burn dressing changes.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Music therapy increases serum melatonin levels in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

CONTEXT: Music therapy is known to have healing and relaxing effects. Although these effects appear to be mediated by release of neurotransmitters and neurohormones, the specific neurohormonal systems involved have not been fully investigated. OBJECTIVE: To assess the effects of a music therapy intervention on concentrations of melatonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, and prolactin in the blood of a group of patients with Alzheimer's disease. DESIGN: Blood samples were obtained before initiating the therapy, immediately at the end of 4 weeks of music therapy sessions, and at 6 weeks follow-up after cessation of the sessions. SETTING: Miami Veterans Administration Medical Center, Miami, Fla. PATIENTS: 20 male inpatients with Alzheimer's disease. INTERVENTION: 30- to 40-minute morning sessions of music therapy 5 times per week for 4 weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Changes in melatonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, and prolactin following music therapy. RESULTS: Melatonin concentration in serum increased significantly after music therapy and was found to increase further at 6 weeks follow-up. A significant increase was found between baseline values and data recorded after the music therapy sessions as well as at 6 weeks follow-up. Norepinephrine and epinephrine levels increased significantly after 4 weeks of music therapy, but returned to pretherapy levels at 6 weeks follow-up. Serum concentration of prolactin and platelet serotonin levels remained unchanged after 4 weeks of music therapy and at 6 weeks follow-up. CONCLUSION: Increased levels of melatonin following music therapy may have contributed to patients' relaxed and calm mood.

Aged↗
PubMed2001

A pilot study into the therapeutic effects of music therapy at a cancer help center.

CONTEXT: Since the mid-1980s, music therapy has been a regular feature of the residential program at the internationally renowned Bristol Cancer Help Centre, United Kingdom. Music therapy complements other therapeutic interventions available to residents at the center. OBJECTIVE: To compare the therapeutic effects of listening to music in a relaxed state with the active involvement of music improvisation (the playing of tuned and untuned percussion instruments) in a music therapy group setting and to investigate the potential influence of music therapy on positive emotions and the immune system of cancer patients. DESIGN: A quantitative pre-posttest, psychological/physiological measures, and qualitative focus group design. SETTING: A cancer help center that offers a fully integrated range of complementary therapies, psychological support, spiritual healing, and nutritional and self-help techniques addressing the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual needs of cancer patients and their supporters. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-nine cancer patients, aged 21 to 68 years. INTERVENTION: Group music therapy interventions of listening to recorded/live music in a relaxed state and improvisation. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Increased well-being and relaxation and less tension during the listening experience. Increased well-being and energy and less tension during improvisation. Increased levels of salivary immunoglobulin A and decreased levels of cortisol in both experiences. RESULTS: Psychological data showed increased well-being and relaxation as well as altered energy levels in both interventions. Physiological data showed increased salivary immunoglobulin A in the listening experience and a decrease in cortisol levels in both interventions over a 2-day period. Preliminary evidence of a link between positive emotions and the immune system of cancer patients was found. CONCLUSIONS: These findings, which link listening to music in a relaxed state and improvisation to alterations in psychological and physiological parameters, may provide a better understanding of the effectiveness of music therapy for cancer patients.

Adult↗