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PubMed1992

Tooth and cusp size reduction in second molars.

The present study examined the cusp reduction pattern of molars in two San-Hybrid groups, namely, the Vassekela and Barakwena. Cusp and crownbase area measurements were undertaken on enlarged photographs of maxillary molars and on camera lucida drawings of mandibular molars. The protocone values for the Barakwena were significantly larger than those of the Vassekela and were also the largest of the four maxillary molar cusps (especially in M2). The metacone was the second largest cusp in M1, the paracone the second largest cusp in M2 and M3, while the hypocone was the smallest cusp in all maxillary molars. Maxillary crownbase areas were larger in the Barakwena than in the Vassekela but these differences were not statistically significant. The protoconid, entoconid and metaconid were the largest of the mandibular molar cusps. Generally, the cusp area values in first and third molars were larger in the taller Barakwena than in the shorter Vassekela. These differences were not statistically significant. In second molars, however, an unexpected finding was that crownbase and cusp areas (except the metaconulid) were significantly larger in the Vassekela than in the Barakwena. This study indicates that second molars show more cusp size differences in the two groups than do the other two molars. This may be regarded as a conservative tendency (Korenhof, 1960) in which case it would indicate that some second molar cusps are in a less active phase of evolutionary reduction than the same cusps in first and third molars.

Biological Evolution↗
PubMed1990

New cavity forms in first deciduous molars which maximize dentin thickness between cavity and pulp chamber.

Using a total of 60 human extracted first deciduous molars (30 upper molars and 30 lower molars), we contrived a variety of ideal cavities having dentin thicknesses below the cavity (subcavitary dentin) that measure approximately 1 mm in thickness from the pulp chamber at any point of measurement and also having a retentional groove prepared in such a way that detachment of a filling material is prevented. The transparent specimens prepared from the cavity-containing teeth were cut into serial sections of 93 microns. These sections were reconstructed using a personal computer. The thickness of dentin below the cavity was measured in randomly selected sections. Results obtained were as follows: 1. An ideal thickness of the subcavitary dentin was preserved for upper first deciduous molar by preparing a retentional groove lingually or by providing a dovetail-like shape to mesio-distolingual sides in the cavity; for lower first deciduous molar, any form of cavitation worked. 2. In the upper first deciduous molars, the margins of the cavity were displaced medially to the summits of the respective cusps 1.9 mm at the buccal side and 1.2 mm at the lingual side. In the lower first deciduous molars, the buccal margin medially measured 0.9 mm and the lingual margin measured 0.6 mm at the mesial side. At the distal side, the buccal and lingual margins measured 1.2 mm and 1.0 mm, respectively. 3. The ratio of cavity width to the distance between the summits of the buccal and lingual cusps was 1/3 in upper deciduous first molars and 2/5 in the lower first deciduous molars. 4. In the upper first deciduous molars, the depths of the buccal and lingual walls of the cavity at the center of the central groove were both 1.1 mm. In the lower first deciduous molars, the cavity formed with its center at the middle of the transverse ridge had a depth of 1.5 mm at the buccal wall and a depth of 1.7 mm at the lingual wall. The cavity formed with its center at the central fossa had a depth of 1.2 mm at the buccal wall and 1.1 mm at the lingual wall. 5. The width of the gingival wall in the proximal box measured 0.6-0.7 mm in upper and lower first deciduous molars.

Child↗
PubMed1988

[Morphological characteristics of inter-radicular space of the first and second lower permanent molars].

In this study, 537 extracted molars (261 first and 276 second molars) with well developed roots were examined to assess the width of the interradicular space and the shape of the furcation vault. The roots were set widely apart in 91.6% of the first and 64.8% of the second permanent molars, while the roots set closely together were observed in 8.4% and 27.9% of the first and second molars, respectively. Fuseg roots were found in second molars only, in 7.2% of cases. A flat furcation fornix was detected in 18.3% of the first and 14.0% of the second molars, whereas a convex shape was observed in 20.7% of the first and 10.5% of the second molars, respectively (P less than 0.001). A convex shape of furcation was found in 8.0% of the first and 27.3% of the second molars, respectively (P less than 0.001). Interradicular ridge was present in a very high percentage (52.9% of the first and 48.0% of the second molars). A concave shape of furcation fornix was statistically more frequent in molars with closely set roots for the first and second permanent molars (P less than 0.001). It seemed that the width of the interradicular space had no influence on the prevalence of interradicular bridges, regardless of type of molars involved.

Humans↗
PubMed1997

[Analysis of divergent angle and length of CEJ to furcation entrance in extracted molars].

The purposes of this study were to investigate the furcation entrance angle (FEA) and the distance between cemento-enamel junction (CEJ) and furcation entrance (FE) of the extracted maxillary and mandibular molars. Assay teeth comprised 89 maxillary molars and 93 mandibular molars. All the FEAs and CEJ-FEs of the molars were measured by a stereomicroscope at 2.5 x equipped with a Bioscan OPTIMAS Image Analyzer (BOIA). The results were summarized as follows: (1) The mean FEAs in the buccal, mesial and distal furcations were 96.3 +/- 10.0, 103.8 +/- 9.7, and 107.2 +/- 12.2 degrees in the maxillary molars, and 91.6 +/- 11.7, 101.7 +/- 11.5, and 97.1 +/- 10.7 degrees in the maxillary second molars, respectively. At the buccal and lingual furcations of mandibular first and second molars, they measured 100.5 +/- 9.7/102.7 +/- 8.5, and 93.3 +/- 11.5/91.7 +/- 10.8 degrees, respectively. (2) The mean distance of CEJ-FEs at the buccal, mesial and distal furcations of maxillary molars were 3.42 +/- 1.5mm, 3.55 +/- 0.97 mm, and 3.69 +/- 0.98mm for the first molars, and 3.01 +/- 1.04mm, 4.04 +/- 1.58mm and 3.00 +/- 1.14mm for the second molars. At the buccal and lingual furcations of the mandibular first and second molars, they were recorded as 1.90 +/- 0.08mm and 2.90 +/- 0.07mm, and 2.82 +/- 1.34mm and 3.46 +/- 1.03mm, respectively. It was concluded that buccal FEA of maxillary 2nd molar was the smallest (91.56 +/- 9.68 degrees) as compared to the mesial and distal FEAs; whereas the mean distance of CEJ-FEs at the buccal surface was the smallest (1.90mm +/- 0.08mm) when compared to the others.

Humans↗
PubMed1996

Effect of various glucagon/insulin molar ratios on blood ketone body levels in rats by use of osmotic minipumps.

The bihormonal control by insulin and glucagon of blood ketone body level was studied. Mixed solutions with various molar ratios of glucagon and insulin (G/I) were subcutaneously infused continuously for five days by use of the osmotic minipump in the normal rats. The concentrations of insulin and glucagon solution were set at the high G/I molar ratio, the moderate G/I molar ratio and the low G/I molar ratio. In addition, the moderate G/I molar ratio group was divided into three sub-groups: low glucagon and low insulin, moderate glucagon and moderate insulin, and high glucagon and high insulin. After five days, the rats were decapitated to measure plasma ketone body, free fatty acid (FFA), glucose, insulin and glucagon. The FFA level was not significantly different among three groups. The glucose level was not different between the high and moderate G/I molar ratio groups, and decreased in the low G/I molar ratio group. 3-beta-hydroxybutyrate (3-OHBA) and acetoacetate (AcAc) levels in the high G/I molar ratio group were elevated, and 3-OHBA level in the low G/I molar ratio group was lowered compared to those in the moderate G/I molar ratio group. Among three moderate G/I molar ratio sub-groups, there was no difference in 3-OHBA and AcAc levels. These results demonstrate that plasma ketone body levels are controlled by the plasma G/I molar ratio.

3-Hydroxybutyric Acid↗
PubMed1996

Effect of non-erupted 3rd molars on distal roots and supporting structures of approximal teeth. A radiographic survey of 202 cases.

Root resorption of 2nd molars in proximity to non-erupted 3rd molars has been widely reported. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of root resorption in second molars adjacent to non-erupted third molars. Its association to age and gender of the patient, location and inclination of the non-erupted third molar and to distal bone support of the 2nd molars was analyzed. A radiographic survey of 202 periapical radiographs taken in patients with clinically missing third molars was conducted. 3 examiners independently evaluated the radiographs and only those cases where at least 2 observers agreed were included in this report. Statistical analysis was performed on 186 radiographs. Associations were analyzed with the Pearson chi 2 test. Radiographic evidence of root resorption was found in 45 2nd molars (24.2%) of which 12 (6.5%) showed moderate to complete root resorption. Non-erupted tooth apical position and mesio-inclination of 60 degrees or more relative to the distal root of the second molar were significantly associated with root resorption (p = 0.01368 and p = 0.0194, respectively). Resorption was positively associated with age of patient (p = 0.00606). These results may support early extraction of impacted 3rd molars especially in cases with a mesio-angulation of 60 degrees or more and an apical location in proximity to the distal root of the 2nd molar.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Effect of erupting third molars on dental caries and gingival health in Finnish students.

The purpose of this study was to assess how the eruptive status of third molars relates to gingival and dental health and, in particular, to the status of the adjacent second molar. One hundred and twenty-three young adults were followed up over a 6-year period, from age 20 to age 26. The status of the second and third molars, and DMF, DMFS, DS, MS, and FS indices, periodontal condition, and salivary acidogenic bacterial counts were assessed. The 6-year DFS increase in relation to second molars was greatest in sextants with unerupted third molars. The percentage of erupting third molars that became carious or had been filled during the study period was 30%. Most new caries lesions or filled surfaces were on mesial surfaces of second molars and occlusal surfaces of third molars. The periodontal condition was best in mandibular sextants in which the third molar was missing. It is concluded that the most favourable situation for upper second molars is if the neighbouring third molar is missing by age 20.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Modern human molar enamel thickness and enamel-dentine junction shape.

This study examines cross-sections of molar crowns in a diverse modern human sample to quantify variation in enamel thickness and enamel-dentine junction (EDJ) shape. Histological sections were generated from molars sectioned buccolingually across mesial cusps. Enamel cap area, dentine area, EDJ length, and bi-cervical diameter were measured on micrographs using a digitizing tablet. Nine landmarks along the EDJ were defined, and X and Y coordinates were digitized in order to quantify EDJ shape. Upper molars show greater values for the components of enamel thickness, leading to significantly greater average enamel thickness than in lower molars. Average enamel thickness increased significantly from M1 to M3 in both molar rows, due to significantly increasing enamel cap area in upper molars, and decreasing dentine area in lower molars. Differences in EDJ shape were found among maxillary molars in combined and individual populations. Sex differences were also found; males showed significantly greater dentine area, EDJ length, and bi-cervical diameters in certain tooth types, which resulted in females having significantly thicker average enamel. Differences in enamel thickness and EDJ shape within molars were also found among populations, although few consistent trends were evident. This study demonstrates that enamel thickness and EDJ shape vary among molars, between sexes, and among populations; these factors must be considered in the categorization and comparison of ape and human molars, particularly when isolated teeth or fossil taxa are included. Human relative enamel thickness encompasses most values reported for fossil apes and humans, suggesting limited taxonomic value when considered alone.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

The effect of maxillary first molar derotation on arch length.

In the correction of Class II malocclusions, derotation of the maxillary first molars is required to obtain an idealized Class I relation. Because of its trapezoidal shape, the maxillary first molar is believed to provide an arch length gain attendant to its derotation, which may subsequently be used to resolve deficiencies mesial to it. Two commonly used mechanisms for maxillary first molar derotation and its associated centers of rotation were studied. A transpalatal arch, when accompanied by distal force equivalent at the level of the maxillary first molar center of resistance, can provide a center of rotation approximating the lingual attachment. This produces an arch length gain of 2.1 mm anterior to the molar, while simultaneously impinging on the maxillary second molar space 1.2 mm (per side). In reality, this may be a transference of a problem in one area of the dental arch to another. The 2 x 4 and 2 x 6 arch wires provide for various centers of rotation along an axis from the molar center of resistance--as projected to the occlusal surface--to the region of the maxillary first molar distal marginal ridge. These centers of rotation do not provide any meaningful alteration in arch length. These arch wires are useful, however, for maxillary first molar derotation necessary to achieve an idealized Class I molar occlusion. It is evident that the arch length gain related to derotation of the maxillary first molars, irrespective of the center of rotation, is insufficient to achieve Class I premolar intercuspation. Additional factors as growth, surgical intervention, or extractions are needed to achieve Class I premolar articulation.

Bicuspid↗
PubMed2000

A role for TNF in bone resorption of deciduous molars in human beings.

In this study, tumor necrosis-alpha was sampled from the gingival crevice of human deciduous molars; this was compared with values measured from the crevice of those deciduous molars missing a permanent successor, and from the crevice of deciduous ankylosed molars. Tumor necrosis-alpha was harvested from the gingival crevice with magnetic microspheres coated with tumor necrosis-alpha antibodies. The amount of bead-bound tumor necrosis-alpha was quantified with the use of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. One hundred seven sites (from 41 patients) were sampled; for each patient, the normal value was compared with either the molars missing a permanent successor or ankylosed value. The tumor necrosis-alpha levels were 1.6 times higher from the crevice of ankylosed deciduous molars when compared with normal deciduous molars and 2.6 times higher from the crevice of sites with a molar missing a permanent successor. The mean and standard error mean distribution of tumor necrosis-alpha expressed as picograms was: normal molars 91 pg (standard error mean +/- 20), ankylosed molars 150 pg (standard error mean +/- 31), and missing permanent successor 236 pg (standard error mean +/- 67). Analysis of variance showed the difference among the 3 means was close to attaining significant difference (F [2.104] = 2.7905, P =.066). Multiple comparison procedures indicated that the mean for molars missing a permanent successor and the normal groups were significantly different, P =.05. The results of this study suggest tumor necrosis-alpha values are elevated in the gingival crevice of deciduous molars with ankylosis and where the permanent tooth bud is congenitally missing.

Alveolar Process↗
PubMed2001

Maxillary unilateral molar distalization with sliding mechanics: a preliminary investigation.

Fifteen patients, eight males and seven females with a mean age of 13.32 years, were selected for unilateral molar distalization. Dentally, all presented with a unilateral Class II molar relationship. The subjects were all in the permanent dentition with second molars erupted and with a well aligned lower dental arch. For maxillary molar distalization a new intra-oral appliance was developed, the Keles Slider, which comprised two premolar and two molar bands. The anchorage unit was a Nance button with an anterior bite plane. From the palatal side, the point of distal force application was carried towards the level of centre of resistance of the maxillary first molar. A Ni-Ti coil spring was used and 200 g distal force was applied to the Class II first molar. Lateral cephalograms were taken and analysed before and 2 months after molar distalization. The Class II molars were distalized bodily, on average, 4.9 mm (P < 0.001). Mesial migration of the Class II first premolars was 1.3 mm (P < 0.05), incisor protrusion was 1.8 mm (P < 0.05) and incisor proclination 3.2 degrees (P < 0.05). The overbite was reduced by 3.1 mm (P < 0.001) and the overjet increased 2.1 mm (P < 0.01). For stabilization, the corrected Class II unilateral molar relationship was maintained with a Nance button for 2 months. The results show that this newly developed device achieved bodily distal molar movement with minimum anchorage loss.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Third molar angulation during and after treatment of adolescent orthodontic patients.

The purpose of this study was to analyse the effect of premolar extraction therapy on third molar angulation during active treatment, and to test the significance of such changes on subsequent impaction of the third molars. Lateral cephalograms made before (T1) and after (T2) treatment and at long-term follow-up (T3) of 157 patients treated non-extraction (non-ex) or with extraction of four premolars (ex), all accurately diagnosed for impaction versus eruption of at least one third molar at T3, were evaluated. Linear regression models demonstrated that the maxillary third molars uprighted more from T1 to T2 (P < 0.05) and were less distally angulated at T2 (P < 0.01) in the ex than in the non-ex patients. No such differences were detected in the mandible (P > 0.05). The regression models also showed similar uprighting of the maxillary and mandibular third molars from T1 to T2 and similar angulation of the maxillary third molars at T2 in those patients with subsequent eruption and impaction (P > 0.05), but more mesially angulated mandibular third molars at T2 in the impaction patients (P < 0.01). Chi square testing demonstrated a higher frequency of distal tipping of the maxillary third molars from T1 to T2 in the impaction patients (P < 0.01), while mesial tipping from T1 to T2 of the mandibular third molars occurred with similar frequency in the two patient groups (P > 0.05). Chi square analysis also showed a higher frequency of greater than 30 degree distal angulation as well as an amount mesial angulation of the maxillary third molars at T2 (P < 0.01), and a higher frequency of greater than 40 degree mesial angulation of the mandibular third molars at T2 (P < 0.01) in patients with impaction than in those with eruption.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Types and dimensions of root trunk correlating with diagnosis of molar furcation involvements.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the possible correlation of dimension, location, prevalence, and types of root trunk with molar furcation involvement (FI). The samples used in the study include 166 maxillary molars (70 1st and 96 2nd molars) and 200 mandibular molars (103 1st and 97 2nd molars). The dimensions of the root trunks and root lengths were measured with an electric caliper and their means and standard deviations calculated. The types of root trunks were identified by the ratio of root trunk dimension to root length and classified as types A, B, and C. The results may be summarized as follows. (1) Short-root trunks were more commonly found buccally, whereas long-root trunks were more commonly found mesially, in both maxillary molars. (2) Short-root trunks were most commonly found buccally, whereas long-root trunks were more commonly found lingually in both mandibular molars. (3) Long-root trunks were more commonly found on the 2nd molars than on the 1st molars. (4) Long-root trunks were associated with short root length. (5) There is a strong correlation between vertical length and type of root trunk and FI. The findings of the study indicated that an awareness of root trunk type together with horizontal and vertical attachment levels in molar FI may be helpful in the prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment of molar FI.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Appearance of dentin gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing proteins in developing rat molars in vitro.

An in vitro model of mineralization was devised in order to study the developmental appearance of dentin gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing proteins (DGPs) in relation to the onset of mineralization. Maxillary third molars from 11-day-old rats were cultured with or without fetal calf serum (FCS) as modified from Navia et al. (1984). Molars were incubated without radiolabel, or with either 45CaCl2 (5 microCi/ml) for 24 hr at various stages of a ten-day culture period or [3H]-leucine (10 microCi/ml) for 24 hr at the eighth day of culture. Molars were lyophilized and extracted with 10% formic acid overnight at 4 degrees C. DGPs in extracts were detected by immunologic and chromatographic techniques; DGPs in molar sections were detected by immunolocalization using indirect immunofluorescence. Molar development was evaluated histologically using the Von Kossa staining technique. Molars cultured with FCS showed histologic evidence for mineralized dentin and enamel and a significant increase in 45Ca uptake after the sixth day in vitro. Eleven-day-old molars in vivo and molars cultured without FCS showed no evidence of the presence of mineralized tissues. [3H]-Leucine-labeled DGPs were isolated and identified by affinity and reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and by gel electrophoresis from both mineralized and unmineralized molars. DGP antigens were localized immunohistochemically using rabbit anti-rat antibodies raised against a highly purified DGP preparation. In the unmineralized molar, antigenicity was seen in odontoblasts but not in predentin matrix, preodontoblasts, or in any other cell type. Antigens in the mineralized molar were localized to odontoblasts and dentin.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

1-Carboxyglutamic Acid↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Two-year outcomes of primary molar ferric sulfate pulpotomy and root canal therapy.

PURPOSE: The objective of this outcome study was to compare ferric sulfate pulpotomy (FS) and primary tooth root canal therapy (RCT) on cariously exposed vital pulps of primary molars. METHODS: A total of 291 molars were treated in 130 children--182 molars received FS and 109 received RCT by random selection. RESULTS: At 2-year reassessment, 116 molars (73 FS, 43 RCT) were available for clinical and radiographic examination. There was no clinical evidence of pathosis in 96% of FS and 98% of RCT molars. Two independent pediatric dentists evaluated periapical radiographs of the treated molars. Molars were classified into 1 of 4 outcomes: (1) N--normal treated molar, (2) H--nonpathologic radiographic change present, (3) P(O)--pathologic change present, follow-up in 6 months, and (4) P(X)--pathologic change present, extract immediately. Survival analysis was applied. A good level of agreement between raters was found for molars with outcome P(X) (kappa=0.745). Intrarater reliability was good for molars with outcome P(X) (kappa=0.710). Significantly greater numbers of FS than RCT molars were rated P(X) at the 2-year recall (chi2=5.8; P=.02). No significant difference in survival between the 2 types of vital pulp treatments was detected in log rank tests (P=.22). CONCLUSIONS: Outcomes for FS were poorer than RCT outcomes at 2 years; however, at 2 years, the survival rates were not statistically different.

Chi-Square Distribution↗
PubMed2004

[Location and dilation of the second mesiobuccal canals in maxillary molars.].

PURPOSE: To Locate and dilate the second mesiobuccal canals(MB2) in clinical treatment and in extracted molars in maxillary molars. METHODS: 11 extracted maxillary molars were studied. MB2s were searched and dilate the canals were filled with gutta-percha and then x ray film were taken. 146 maxillary molars included 94 maxillary first molars and 52 maxillary second molars were attempted to locate and dilate for MB2.Then root canal treatment was carried out in molars and x ray film were taken. RESULTS: MB2 canal can be located in 60% and dilate 50% of 10 extracted maxillary first molars. MB2 canal can be located in 44.68% and dilated in 29.78% of maxillary first molars. MB2 canal can be in located in 11.53% and dilated in 7.69% of maxillary second molars. CONCLUSION: The occurrence of MB2 is high in maxillary first molars. Although there are many difficulties in location and dilate of MB2, attempt should be conducted to explore in order to increase rate incidence of root canal therapy.

Dental Pulp Cavity↗
PubMed2004

Development of third molar in the Czech population.

The third molar development was studied on the basis of 1700 panoramic radiographs analysis of randomly selected individuals in the age ranging between 5-21 years inclusive. Each age group consisted of 100 probands--50 boys and 50 girls. The characteristics of the third molar development were following: time of dental follicle formation--dynamics of development--the most frequent stages of third molar development in individual age groups-- intraindividual differences and symmetry of development--incidence of 1-4 third molars agenesis--relation between the third molar development and the dental age--differences in the third molar development between individuals with all four third molars present and individuals with 1-3 third molars agenesis--ntersexual differences. On the basis of our analysis of seven stages of development, differences of this process between males and females and the changes in dynamics of development characterizing upper and lower jaw were described. The incidence of the third molar agenesis was statistically significant, being more frequent in boys (24.2%) than in girls (17.6%). The study showed, that when the third molar is not present at the age of thirteen, it could be taken in the Czech population as agenesis. Correlation between developmental stage of third molars and dental age was ascertained. With the exception of the agenesis, no other statistically significant intersexual differences were found.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Reasons for early loss of primary molars.

PURPOSE: The aims of this study were to investigate the principal reasons for untimely loss of primary molars and to evaluate the risk factors of early primary molar loss in children aged four to nine years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 1150 untimely lost primary molars were analyzed from 546 patients. The early loss of primary molars was analyzed in relation to age, sex, dmf (t), DMF (T) scores, toothbrushing frequency, history of treatment and maternal education. The data were converted to SPSS format. Pearson Chi-square test was used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: Among the investigated subjects, 15.2% of children reported regular toothbrushing. Only 23.1% of subjects had a history of treatment before the tooth extraction and 33% of mothers had a low education level. Untimely loss of primary molars due to pain, caries and sepsis were 30.2%, 31% and 38.8%, respectively. The frequency of 'only one primary molar loss' was significantly higher in group 1 (p < 0.05), however the frequency of 'more than one primary molar loss' for group 2 was more than group 1 (p < 0.05). Irregular toothbrushing for the children in group 2 was found significantly high than in group 1 (p < 0.05). Irregular toothbrushing was associated with number of early primary molar loss in group 2 (p < 0.05). The level of maternal education was associated with dmf (t) scores (p < 0.05). The caries incidence was associated with number of early primary molar loss in both groups (p < 0.05). The mean number of treated teeth before extraction for group 2 was significantly higher than for group 1 (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Results of this study suggested that irregular toothbrushing, high dmf (t) scores and untreatment of carious primary molars were significant risk factors in early loss of primary molars. Every effort must be taken into account in restoring rather than extracting carious teeth.

Chi-Square Distribution↗