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PubMed2000

Philosophy of mind in the clinic: the relation between causal and meaningful explanation in psychiatry.

Conceptual dichotomies between mind and brain, psychology and neuroscience, meaning and causation, and fact and value confound thinking in philosophy of mind, clinical psychiatry, and psychiatric ethics. Paul Churchland's theory of eliminative materialism highlights these dichotomies, stating that advances in neuroscience have restricted, and eventually will eliminate, any need for psychology. The core principles of this theory are questionable, because psychiatrists still need psychology and perhaps always will. The main argument in this essay is that even in cases of well-defined brain pathology (where eliminative materialism seems most plausible), psychological concepts remain critical. Thus, philosophers and psychiatrists should generate conceptual models that lead not to eliminativism but to explanatory pluralism, which is the pragmatic integration of diverse concepts toward the end of better handling clinical challenges. The contributions of Karl Jaspers in opposition to eliminative materialism and in support of pluralism are discussed. Jaspers delineated the role of meaningful psychological explanation in a psychiatry rooted in neuroscientific explanation. However, his notion that meaningful states do not have causal power is disputable and has come under fire in recent philosophy of mind and cognitive neuroscience, which highlight the possibility that meaningful psychological states can be causally significant. This idea has implications for psychiatric ethics and the fact/value debate.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

A training study of theory of mind and executive function in children with autistic spectrum disorders.

This study investigated the relationship between theory of mind and executive functioning in children with autistic spectrum disorders through a training study. Ten children were trained on theory of mind, whilst ten were trained in executive function. Seven children were assigned to a control group, receiving no intervention. Training programmes were administered individually, lasting for 25 minutes per day for 5-10 days. Children were tested before training, after training and at a two-month follow-up. Significant improvements were seen in performance on theory of mind tasks in both trained groups, whilst the control group showed no improvement. No improvement on the executive function tasks was seen in any of the groups. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

A partnership in like-minded thinking-generating hopefulness in persons with cancer.

A conceptual model of a partnership in 'like-minded thinking' consists of the following components: a relationship, a shared goal with mutual agreement to work toward that goal, and reciprocal encouragement between two people. A like-minded alliance is a relationship that offers support while at the same time encourages hope and establishes a reciprocating emotional attitude of hopefulness. The discussion focuses on the principles of such a model that is designed primarily as a lay intervention for anyone who has a close friend with cancer and who wants to assist the friend in maintaining a hopeful attitude in the face of illness. While this model is not directed at healthcare professionals it may be transferable into psychosocial interventions to assist persons toward sustaining hopefulness in the context of the cancer trajectory. Much has been written in the literature about how hopelessness spawns despair for individuals who have cancer and in those near the end of life; it may even create a desire for hastened death (Breitbart W., Heller K.S.: 2003, 'Reframing Hope: Meaning-Centered Care for Patients Near the End of Life'. Journal of Palliative Medicine 6, 979-988; Jones J.M., Huggins M.A., Rydall A.C., Rodin G.M.: 2003, 'Symptomatic distress, hopelessness, and the desire for hastened death in hospitalized cancer patients', Journal of Psychosomatic Research 55, 411-418). Therefore, the aim of this paper is to explore how like-minded thinking for a person with cancer and his or her support person provides a framework for a personal shared worldview that is hope-based, meaningful and coherent.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2004

Theory of mind, social development, and psychosis.

The difficulty in interpreting other people's mental states found in children with autism and in people affected by schizophrenia may be explained in terms of a unique mental process called Theory of Mind. The paper discusses the main operational issues of such a peculiar aspect of social cognition, the Theory of Mind, and its implication in schizophrenia, including a review of its related neural structures. Theory of Mind abilities may be a relevant aspect of social interaction involving people affected by schizophrenia, and they need to be further investigated in clinical research.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed1995

How does cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help?

There is encouraging evidence that structured psychological treatments for depression, in particular cognitive therapy, can reduce subsequent relapse after the period of initial treatment has been completed. However, there is a continuing need for prophylactic psychological approaches that can be administered to recovered patients in euthymic mood. An information-processing analysis of depressive maintenance and relapse is used to define the requirements for effective prevention, and to propose mechanisms through which cognitive therapy achieves its prophylactic effects. This analysis suggests that similar effects can be achieved using techniques of stress-reduction based on the skills of attentional control taught in mindfulness meditation. An information-processing analysis is presented of mindfulness and mindlessness, and of their relevance to preventing depressive relapse. This analysis provides the basis for the development of Attentional Control Training, a new approach to preventing relapse that integrates features of cognitive therapy and mindfulness training and is applicable to recovered depressed patients.

Aftercare↗
PubMed1993

Communicative competence and theory of mind in autism: a test of relevance theory.

Sperber and Wilson's (1986) relevance theory makes explicit the role of the comprehension of intentions in human communication. Autistic people have been hypothesized to suffer from a specific and characteristic impairment in the ability to attribute such mental states (e.g., beliefs, intentions); a lack of "theory of mind". According to relevance theory, then, autistic people should have specific difficulties with the use of language for communication. Relevance theory allows precise predictions about the levels of communicative competence that should be possible with either no, first-order only, or second-order theory of mind ability. Three experiments are reported which tested predictions following from the analysis of figurative language in terms of relevance and theory of mind, in able autistic and normal young subjects. The results lend support to relevance theory. In addition, the findings suggest that some autistic subjects are eventually able to attribute mental states. Lastly, the results demonstrate close links between social and communicative understanding in autism and normal development.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

The psychobiology of mind-body communication: the complex, self-organizing field of information transduction.

The current information revolution in molecular biology has important implications for an new understanding of the phenomenology of mind, memory and behavior as a complex, self-organizing field of information transduction. This paper traces the pathways of information transduction in life processes from the molecular-genetic level to the dynamics of mind and behavior together with suggestions for future research exploring the psychobiology of mind-body communication and its implications for the psychotherapeutic arts of the future.

Genetics↗
PubMed1994

Cloning of a human cDNA encoding a putative nucleotide-binding protein related to Escherichia coli MinD.

A novel human cDNA encoding a putative nucleotide-binding protein (NBP) was obtained by screening a human SHSY5Y neuroblastoma library. The deduced protein contains 320 amino acids (aa) with a M(r) of 34,540. NBP displays sequence similarity with the product of the minD gene from Escherichia coli. MinD is involved in the proper placement of the division septum, and has ATPase activity. NBP and MinD contain consensus nucleotide (nt)-binding domains. The NBP mRNA is approx. 1500 nt in length and is expressed in several human cell lines and in all rat tissues examined, with the highest levels in lung and testis.

Adenosine Triphosphatases↗
PubMed2004

Understanding orbitofrontal contributions to theory-of-mind reasoning: implications for autism.

Autism is a lifelong developmental disorder that is associated with severe difficulties with "theory-of-mind"--the understanding that others' behaviors are motivated by internal mental states. Here, we raise the possibility that research examining the neural bases of theory-of-mind reasoning has the potential to inform researchers about the elusive functional neural impairments associated with autism. Evidence from our lab and others' suggests that theory-of-mind reasoning may be fractionated into at least two functionally and anatomically distinct neural circuits. Specifically, the ability to decode others' mental states from observable cues (such as facial expressions) may rely on contributions from the orbitofrontal/medial temporal circuit within the right hemisphere. In contrast, the ability to reason about others' mental states may rely left medial frontal regions. We conclude by reviewing evidence suggesting that the developmental roots of autism might lie in abnormal functioning of the orbitofrontal/medial temporal circuit which may, in turn, underlie the abnormal development of social-cognitive skills among individuals with autism.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed2006

Quantum-like brain: "Interference of minds".

We present a contextualist statistical realistic model for quantum-like representations in physics, cognitive science, and psychology. We apply this model to describe cognitive experiments to check quantum-like structures of mental processes. The crucial role is played by interference of probabilities for mental observables. Recently one such experiment based on recognition of images was performed. This experiment confirmed our prediction on the quantum-like behavior of mind. In our approach "quantumness of mind" has no direct relation to the fact that the brain (as any physical body) is composed of quantum particles. We invented a new terminology "quantum-like (QL) mind." Cognitive QL-behavior is characterized by a nonzero coefficient of interference lambda. This coefficient can be found on the basis of statistical data. There are predicted not only cos theta-interference of probabilities, but also hyperbolic cosh theta-interference. This interference was never observed for physical systems, but we could not exclude this possibility for cognitive systems. We propose a model of brain functioning as a QL-computer (there is a discussion on the difference between quantum and QL computers).

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Theory of mind, inhibitory control, and preschool-age children's suggestibility in different interviewing contexts.

The current study examined the relations among 3- to 5-year-olds' theory of mind, inhibitory control, and three measures of suggestibility: yielding to suggestive questions (yield), shifting answers in response to negative feedback (shift), and accuracy in response to misleading questions during a pressured interview about a live event. Theory of mind aided in the prediction of suggestibility about the live event, and inhibitory control was a moderator variable affecting the consistency of children's sensitivity to social pressure across situations. The findings indicate that theory of mind and inhibitory control predict children's suggestibility about a live event above and beyond yield, shift, and age and that the construct validity of shift may improve as children's inhibitory control develops.

Brain↗
PubMed2005

Validation of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale in a cancer population.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the construct and criterion validity of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) in cancer outpatients, using matched community members as controls. METHODS: Cancer outpatients (n=122) applying for enrollment in a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program completed the MAAS and measures of mood disturbance and stress. Local community members (n=122) matched to the patients on gender, age, and education level completed the same measures. RESULTS: The single-factor structure of the MAAS was invariant across the groups. Higher MAAS scores were associated with lower mood disturbance and stress symptoms in cancer patients, and the structure of these relations was invariant across groups. CONCLUSIONS: The MAAS appears to have appropriate application in research examining the role of mindfulness in the psychological well-being of cancer patients, with or without comparisons to nonclinical controls.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2004

The neural correlates of theory of mind within interpersonal interactions.

Tasks that engage a theory of mind seem to activate a consistent set of brain areas. In this study, we sought to determine whether two different interactive tasks, both of which involve receiving consequential feedback from social partners that can be used to infer intent, similarly engaged the putative theory of mind neural network. Participants were scanned using fMRI as they played the Ultimatum Game (UG) and the Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG) with both alleged human and computer partners who were outside the scanner. We observed a remarkable degree of overlap in brain areas that activated to partner decisions in the two games, including commonly observed theory of mind areas, as well as several brain areas that have not been reported previously and may relate to immersion of participants in real social interactions that have personally meaningful consequences. Although computer partners elicited activation in some of the same areas activated by human partners, most of these activations were stronger for human partners.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Do visual perspective tasks need theory of mind?

Reviews [Frith, U., Frith, C.D., 2003. Development and neurophysiology of mentalising. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., B 358, 685-694.] of several imaging studies report robust involvement of medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) in "theory of mind" (ToM) tasks. Surprisingly, this activation is notably absent when judging another person's visual perspective [Vogeley, K., May, M., Ritzl, A., Falkai, P., Zilles, K., Fink, G.R., 2004. Neural correlates of first-person perspective as one constituent of human self-consciousness. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 16, 817-827.]. The objective of our study was to see whether this activation can be recovered when the difference between what observers see is clearly one of perspectives (in front vs. behind) and not potentially a difference in what observers are looking at. Despite this change, there was still no apparent activation of MPFC. We did find activation in the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) recently emphasized as centrally involved in processing false belief stories [Saxe, R., Kanwisher, N., 2003. People thinking about thinking people: The role of the temporo-parietal junction in "theory of mind". NeuroImage 19, 1835-1842.], which also create a stark contrast of perspectives. By integrating extant neurophysiological evidence on theory of mind processing, we suggest that the dorsal part of the TPJ region is responsible for representing perspective differences and making behavioral predictions, while the more ventral part of TPJ and the MPFC region is responsible for predicting behavioral consequences and the MPFC also emotional consequences of mental states.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Reflections on the interaction of the mind and brain.

Problems associated with the topic of the mind-brain interaction are reviewed and analyzed. If there is an interaction, then the "mind" and "brain" are independent variables; the mind represents subjective experience and is therefore a non-physical phenomenon. This fact led to the need for a field theory, termed here the "cerebral mental field" (CMF). By definition, the CMF is a system property produced by the appropriate activities of billions of neurons. An experimental test of this theory is possible and a test design is presented. The most direct experimental evidence has been obtained by use of intracranial stimulating and recording electrodes. Important information has also been developed, however, with extracranial imaging techniques. These can be very fast (in ms), but the cerebral neuronal events that produce changes in physiological properties require a time delay for their processing. A number of surprising time factors affecting the appearance of a subjective somatosensory experience are described, and their wider implications are discussed. Among these is a delay (up to 0.5 s) in the generation of a sensory awareness. Thus, unconscious cerebral processes precede a subjective sensory experience. If this can be generalized to all kinds of subjective experiences, it would mean that all mental events begin unconsciously and not just those that never become conscious. In spite of the delay for a sensory experience, subjectively there appears to be no delay. Evidence was developed to demonstrate that this phenomenon depends on an antedating of the delayed experience. There is a subjective referral backward in time to coincide with the time of the primary cortical response to the earliest arriving sensory signal. The subjective referral in time is analogous to the well-known subjective referral in space. In conclusion, features of the CMF can be correlated with brain events, even though the CMF is non-physical, by study of subjective reports from the human subject.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Eccles' perspective of the forebrain, its role in skilled movements, and the mind-brain problem.

Sir John Eccles' experimental life evolved from the "bottom" up: the synapse to the modular circuitry of the spinal cord, later the cerebellum and, less extensively, also the thalamus and hippocampus. He experimented quantitatively on basic properties of cell membranes, synapses, transmitters, cellular modules, reflexes, and plasticity. In parallel, he was also motivated to consider philosophical problems of mind-brain interactions. It was mostly during Eccles' "Swiss period" (1976-1997) that new experimental work advanced understanding of intentional motor actions and their preparation. For example, early brain imaging work suggested that the so-called "supplementary" motor area was rather a "supramotor" area, concerned with intentional preparation to move. Eccles also closely followed work on cortico-cerebellar integration and learning. His final contribution, in collaboration with the quantum physicist, Friedrich Beck, was a model of how specific neuronal modules interact with the mind. Being a declared dualist, Eccles encountered considerable resistance and skepticism among neuroscientists in accepting his experimentally untestable mind-brain theories. But one can only admire the remarkable continuity of effort in his search for modular operations of identified neurons in the central nervous system and their synaptic actions. This effort was facilitated by collaboration with the eminent anatomist, János Szentágothai, who had previously helped Eccles advance understanding of spinal and cerebellar circuitry. This review also includes some personal views on current understanding of the forebrain, with an emphasis on the multiplicity of cortical modules, all of which contribute in the mental preparation for forthcoming intentional actions.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Social functioning, theory of mind and neurocognition in outpatients with schizophrenia; mental state decoding may be a better predictor of social functioning than mental state reasoning.

Few studies have directly investigated the relationship between theory of mind (ToM) deficits and social functioning in schizophrenia. At the same time, the impact of mental state decoding tasks on social dysfunction has also not yet been investigated. In this study, the relationship between theory of mind deficits and social functioning was investigated among 50 patients with schizophrenia. A mental state decoding task known as 'The Eyes test' and a mental state reasoning task 'The Hinting test' were applied to assess ToM abilities, while the Social Functioning Scale (SFS) was used to assess social functioning. Non-ToM neurocognitive tests were also given to the patients. Results of the study show how theory of mind and working memory performances of patients with good functional outcome proved to be significantly better than those of inadequately functioning patients. Results also indicate that performance on the Eyes test was the best predictor of social functioning and that negative symptoms also contributed to poor social functioning. It is concluded in this study that mental state decoding skills appear to be the most important cognitive mediator of social functioning.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2006

Self-face recognition and theory of mind in patients with schizophrenia and first-degree relatives.

OBJECTIVE: The hypothesized relationship between theory of mind (ToM) and self-face recognition as well as its potential genetic associations has not been previously explored in patients with schizophrenia and in first-degree relatives with schizotypal personality traits. METHOD: Ten patients diagnosed with schizophrenia, 10 of their first-degree relatives and 10 healthy controls were included. To assess self-face recognition (SFR), participants were presented images of faces of themselves and others and asked to make rapid 'unfamiliar', 'familiar' and 'self' judgments. As a measure of ToM, subjects were administered the Revised Mind in the Eyes Test (MET [Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., and Plumb, I., 2001. The "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42(2), 241-251.]). Schizotypal characteristics in relatives and controls were assessed using a modified version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ [Raine, A., 1991. The SPQ: a scale for the assessment of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria. Schizophrenia Bulletin 17(4), 555-564.]). RESULTS: Patients took longer and were less accurate on the SFR task than their relatives who in turn performed worse than healthy controls. Specific ToM deficits in schizophrenia were replicated. There was a relationship between accuracy rates on the MET and SFR tasks. High levels of schizotypal traits such as social anxiety, constricted affect and no close friends were important for both tasks. CONCLUSIONS: Face recognition deficits and ToM deficits in schizophrenia are apparent. The critical influence of high levels of select schizotypal traits is also highlighted. A deficit in relatives of schizophrenia patients raises the possibility that ToM and face recognition deficits may be candidate endophenotypes for schizophrenia. Support for the hypothesized link between ToM and face recognition is provided.

Adult↗