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At least 307 records · Page 17Linked to original sources
PubMed1997

[History of the tuning fork. I: Invention of the tuning fork, its course in music and natural sciences. Pictures from the history of otorhinolaryngology, presented by instruments from the collection of the Ingolstadt German Medical History Museum].

BACKGROUND: G. Cardano, physician, mathematician, and astrologer in Pavia, Italy, in 1550 described how sound may be perceived through the skull. A few years later H. Capivacci, also a physician in Padua, realized that this phenomenon might be used as a diagnostic tool for differentiating between hearing disorders located either in the middle ear or in the acoustic nerve. The German physician G. C. Schelhammer in 1684 was the first to use a common cutlery fork in further developing the experiments initiated by Cardano and Capivacci. For a long time to come, however, there was no demand for this in practical otology. THE INVENTION OF THE TUNING FORK: The tuning fork was invented in 1711 by John Shore, trumpeter and lutenist to H. Purcell and G.F. Händel in London. A picture of Händel's own tuning fork, probably the oldest tuning fork in existence, is presented here for the first time. There are a number of anecdotes connected with the inventor of the tuning fork, using plays on words involving the name Shore, and mixing up pitch-pipe and pitchfork. Some of these are related here. The tuning fork as a musical instrument soon became a success throughout Europe. THE PHYSICS OF THE TUNING FORK: The German physicist E. F. F. Chladni in Wittenberg around 1800 was the first to systematically investigate the mode of vibration of the tuning fork with its nodal points. Besides this, he and others tried to construct a complete musical instrument based on sets of tuning forks, which, however, were not widely accepted. J. H. Scheibler in Germany in 1834 presented a set of 54 tuning forks covering the range from 220 Hz to 440 Hz, at intervals of 4 Hz. J. Lissajous in Paris constructed a very elaborate tuning fork with a resonance box, which was intended to represent the international standard of the musical note A with 435 vibrations per second, but this remained controversial. K. R. Koenig, a German physicist living in Paris, invented a tuning fork which was kept in continuous vibration by a clockwork. H. Helmholtz, physiologist in Heidelberg, in 1863 used sets of electromagnetically powered tuning forks for his famous experiments on the sensations of tone. Until the invention of the electronic valve, tuning forks remained indispensible instruments for producing defined sinusoidal vibrations. The history of this development is presented in detail. The diagnostic use of the tuning fork in otology will be described in a separate article.

Acoustics↗
PubMed1996

[Perforation of the ear drum. On the history of paracentesis and grommet insertion].

As early as 1649, Jean Riolan the Younger pierced an ear drum, after which the patient's hearing improved. This occurred as a result of an accidental ear drum injury while cleaning an ear canal with an ear-spoon. In 17th and 18th centuries, several pioneers in medicine (Thomas Willis, Antonio Mario Valsalva, William Cheselden) conducted experiments in an effort to ascertain the function of the ear drum in hearing. At the end of the 18th century, ear drum perforation, like perforation of a cataract, was indiscriminately performed by itinerent quacks and "physicians" in England, France, and Germany. Ear drum perforation was performed in many places even for the healing of deaf and dumb. Astlee Cooper reported about success with ear drum perforation in 1800 and listed strict indications. He recommended the operation only in the presence of obturation of the Eustachian tube. Because of the negative results of indiscriminate ear drum perforation, the operation soon acquired a bad reputation and was not performed for decades. It was only Herrmann Schwartze who reintroduced paracentesis into the daily practice of otorhinolaryngology. He was director of the royal ENT clinic in Halle and published a trailblazing treatise on the indications, value, and success of this operation. Since physicians had soon realized that spontaneous healing tendencies of the ear drum quickly lead to closure of an artificial perforation, many physicians tried different techniques to obtain a permanent opening. Gruber resected half of the ear drum--unsuccessfully. Others put foreign bodies into the ear drum apertures, such as catgut, whalebone rods, and lead wires. In his textbook of 1845, Martell Frank first described a grommet made of gold foil. Politzer experimented with a hard rubber ring but later abandoned his attempts because of lack of success. Voltolini manufactured an open hollow ring of gold foil or aluminium, which had to be fixed at the handle of the malleur. Armstrong described a "new" therapy for chronic secretory otitis media consisting of inserting a vinyl tube into the ear drum. While he was not the inventor of the grommet, he was the first to reintroduce grommets in the middle of the 20th century. Theromoparacentesis was performed as early as 1867 by Voltolini, who performed this operation using a galvanic cautery device. After more than 100 years, the Japanese physician Saito reintroduced thermoparacentesis into the therapy of tube ventilation disorders. Paracentesis, grommet insertion, and thermoparacentesis are among the most successful treatments currently available to the ENT specialist when used properly. They are treatments with a long history.

Europe↗
PubMed1996

Long-term change in the organization of inventive activity.

Relying on a quantitative analysis of the patenting and assignment behavior of inventors, we highlight the evolution of institutions that encouraged trade in technology and a growing division of labor between those who invented new technologies and those who exploited them commercially over the nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. At the heart of this change in the organization of inventive activity was a set of familiar developments which had significant consequences for the supply and demand of inventions. On the supply side, the growing complexity and capital intensity of technology raised the amount of human and physical capital required for effective invention, making it increasingly desirable for individuals involved in this activity to specialize. On the demand side, the growing competitiveness of product markets induced firms to purchase or otherwise obtain the rights to technologies developed by others. These increasing incentives to differentiate the task of invention from that of commercializing new technologies depended for their realization upon the development of markets and other types of organizational supports for trade in technology. The evidence suggests that the necessary institutions evolved first in those regions of the country where early patenting activity had already been concentrated. A self-reinforcing process whereby high rates of inventive activity encouraged the evolution of a market for technology, which in turn encouraged greater specialization and productivity at invention as individuals found it increasingly feasible to sell and license their discoveries, appears to have been operating. This market trade in technological information was an important contributor to the achievement of a high level of specialization at invention well before the rise of large-scale research laboratories in the twentieth century.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1996

An economic analysis of unilateral refusals to license intellectual property.

The intellectual property laws in the United States provide the owners of intellectual property with discretion to license the right to use that property or to make or sell products that embody the intellectual property. However, the antitrust laws constrain the use of property, including intellectual property, by a firm with market power and may place limitations on the licensing of intellectual property. This paper focuses on one aspect of antitrust law, the so-called "essential facilities doctrine," which may impose a duty upon firms controlling an "essential facility" to make that facility available to their rivals. In the intellectual property context, an obligation to make property available is equivalent to a requirement for compulsory licensing. Compulsory licensing may embrace the requirement that the owner of software permit access to the underlying code so that others can develop compatible application programs. Compulsory licensing may undermine incentives for research and development by reducing the value of an innovation to the inventor. This paper shows that compulsory licensing also may reduce economic efficiency in the short run by facilitating the entry of inefficient producers and by promoting licensing arrangements that result in higher prices.

Costs and Cost Analysis↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Early Belgian experience with the Kugel patch inguinal hernia repair.

The Kugel hernia repair is an open but minimally invasive, tension free repair, offering the advantages of a preperitoneal repair without the need for general anaesthesia. We report our initial experience with this technique in 25 inguinal hernia repairs. Operating time averaged 40 +/- 16 min, and one complication, a bladder tear, occurred intra-operatively. Patients were discharged after a median of 2 days and were then seen after 3 weeks and after at least one year. Three weeks postoperatively, there were two superficial skin inflammations and one haematoma. One year post-operatively no recurrences occurred but two patients complained of persistent inguinodynia. The Kugel hernia repair is a relatively new technique with a short operating time and minimal postoperative pain, but a learning curve, comparable to that of TEP has to be overcome in order to reproduce the results of its inventor.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Limitations to the value of the Sapphire trial.

The Sapphire trial was organised as a randomised trial to compare carotid endarterectomy (CEA) with carotid angioplasty and stenting (CAS) using a protection device in so called high risk patients. The trial concluded that CEA and CAS were similar as far as stroke and death are concerned but CAS was superior when other complications were taken into account. The trial was flawed for several reasons. It was commercially funded and the inventor of the protection device was one of the investigators and therefore not in equipoise. The end points of the trial favoured CAS by making a biochemical myocardial event an end point. The surgeons doing CEA in the trial did relatively few CEA'S per year and had a high stroke and death rate. These surgeons also excluded over 400 patients from the trial because they were said to be too difficult or risky to operate on. The precise reasons for this exclusion have never been made clear except that the surgeons were probably inexperienced. Finally the patients were heterogeneous, more than 70% being asymptomatic or suffering from recurrent stenosis. For all of these reasons the Sapphire trial's conclusions that CAS is equivalent to CEA in high risk patients cannot be scientifically justified.

Angioplasty↗
PubMed1999

A young man has an idea. What should he do?

There is nothing more frustrating for a young neurosurgeon or neuroscientist than having an idea, and believing that it may work, and not knowing how to proceed. Even to the most persevering of people the process of converting the idea into reality is arduous and frustrating. A great deal of support is required in order to develop the idea and, unfortunately, the current basic medical education and post-graduate programs in most countries neither provide that support or, indeed, the knowledge of how to obtain it. Developing a creative ability is an art and science which needs to be developed through true experience requiring both time and patience. Many young researchers cannot tolerate the frustration and stumble at one of the numerous hurdles of lack of funding, sponsorship, proper guidance, lawyers, relationships with manufacturing companies, cost of registration of patent and insurance. Therefore, many great ideas are lost. It is essential to discover these young researchers and encourage them and provide them with all they need to mature their abilities. Ultimately the patient is the one who is going to gain the most from their inventions or discoveries. This very special need was one of the main concepts that led to the formation of the International Society of Neurosurgical Instrument Inventors, resulting in a forum whereby neurosurgeons with experience of inventing instruments can pool their experiences with young inexperienced neurosurgeons with fresh ideas. In this short paper some of the important obstacles facing any young neurosurgeon who may have a viable idea will be analyzed.

Equipment Design↗
PubMed1997

The origin of the word Stent.

In 1856, the English dentist Charles Stent developed a thermoplastic-like material for taking impressions of toothless mouths. This "Stent mass" was later used as a device or mould for keeping a skin graft in place; it was also used to provide support for anastomosis. A hundred years after the inventor's death in 1885, the word stent has been adopted all over the world in interventional radiology but today it is understood to mean percutaneous tubular structures that induce or maintain lumen patency. The true origin of the word stent is not found in many dictionaries. In most references, the wrong dentist is given credit for the discovery. Dictionaries also refer to the obsolete English and Scottish words stent and stint which mean, among other things, "to extend". The true origin of the word is therefore somewhat unclear.

Anastomosis, Surgical↗
PubMed2004

Accessibility of electronically mediated education: policy issues.

Electronic technology has transformed education systems over the past 30 years. Generally speaking, technology has been an incredible benefit for individuals with disabilities. However, the use of technology, particularly in education, has been sometimes discriminatory toward those who are unable to interact with it in the standard ways anticipated by its inventors. Disability policies have attempted to address issues of equality of opportunity for all citizens, but application of these policies to rapidly evolving technology has been difficult. In this article we provide a brief review of disability policy as it pertains to education. We also review several current policy initiatives related to higher education information technology--all of which pertain to public kindergarten through 12th-grade education. We raise questions that arise when careful thought is given to ways in which disability, education, and technology policies overlap. We anticipate that these next few pages will generate dialogue among researchers, policy makers, educators, technology engineers, and others interested in how electronically mediated education affects individuals with disabilities and how it can be used to ensure equal access to the educational benefits available in schools protected by U.S. civil rights legislation.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Preparation and examination of proposed consensus reference standards for fiber-counting.

This study provided standard reference materials for fiber-counting by phase-contrast microscopy (PCM). PCM is subject to many sources of variation, including those dependent on the microscopist, so reference standards cannot be produced that are traceable to national or international standard units. Consensus standards using a "true value" agreed on by a number of laboratories may be acceptable. Reference slides for fiber-counting can be prepared using a proprietary process of grid overlay in which the fields of view defined by the grids are identifiable and relocatable. Multiple microscopists then can examine exactly the same areas of samples, reducing one source of potential variation. Twelve slides prepared from proficiency test samples of the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) Industrial Hygiene Laboratory Quality Program were used in this study, four each of chrysotile asbestos, amosite asbestos, and man-made mineral fibers. Five microscopists from AIHA-accredited laboratories, plus the inventor of the grid process, examined the slides in a blind study. This group represented commercial analytical companies, in-house corporate laboratories, research institutions, and universities. The six microscopists met to obtain consensus agreement on the fibers in each designated field classified as countable under National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Method 7400. Slides and documentation were forwarded to AIHA for training or other purposes. Examination of the results by statistical methods showed that some microscopists' results were significantly different from others, even though all analysts would have been considered proficient with respect to the final consensus values. Although the reasons for the outliers are complex, this procedure may have value in selecting reference laboratories in proficiency test schemes, possibly leading to more defensible "true" values and tighter limits of variation.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Improving the heat stability of vaccines: problems, needs, and approaches.

Biologics comprise temperature-sensitive organic polymers that must retain their primary and secondary structures as well as their interrelationships if their activities are to be retained. Targets for temperature-stable vaccines assume a technologic database that exceeds present knowledge. For this reason, new territory must be explored. Coupled with lack of scientific information is lack of economic incentive for the producer to undertake new areas of basic research on stabilization. Moreover, the means of protecting and rewarding the inventor are extremely weak, and no source of funds for meeting the costs is evident. It is critical, at this time, to weigh the costs of improving vaccine against those of establishing an effective cold chain. Developing a cold chain seems the more likely choice.

Drug Stability↗
PubMed1983

The brothers Lumière. Pioneers in medical photography.

A brief historical sketch of the brothers Lumière, the inventors of the cinématographe, is presented. Particular emphasis is placed on their perfection of "Autochromes," photographic plates suitable for color photography, and on their foresight in putting these advances to use in medical illustrations.

France↗
PubMed2001

Pioneers in epidural needle design.

IMPLICATIONS: In this article we discuss the development of epidural needles and the historical factors leading to their invention. The most popular needles are described and their inventors acknowledged.

Anesthesia, Epidural↗
PubMed2002

The economics of human gene patents.

The author examines patents on DNA sequences, including data on gene sequence grants issued by the PTO during a 33-month period from 1998 to 2001. Policy supporting patents on DNA sequences and other elemental information that are far "upstream" in the product development pathway is contrasted with the economic bases and rationale for patents to pharmaceuticals, which require a protracted and expensive process of development and testing but that can be relatively cheaply and competitively imitated once they are approved and disclosed. How to allocate appropriately the economic returns among the upstream and downstream inventors is a challenging problem for economic theory, as well as for contemporary biomedical research, and is perhaps most familiarly embodied in licensing and cross-licensing disputes involving "reach-through" and "reach-back" rights. Such disputes can generate enormous transaction costs. They may become increasingly frequent and vexing with respect to the scope and overlap of patent claims on human gene sequences. On the basis of his analyses, the author argues that genome patent claims should be interpreted narrowly. He is particularly concerned with ensuring that the development of new (therapeutic) products is not blocked or retarded by a multiplicity of prior patent claims, but he is pessimistic that the diversity of participants in biotechnology will provide a "sufficient community of interest to organize comprehensive low-royalty cross-licensing" regimes. Accordingly, he suggests mandatory arbitration as one mechanism for resolving such problems.

Genetic Research↗
PubMed2001

Conception of the first magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents: a brief history.

About 20 years ago, a technological innovation process started that eventually led to the affirmation of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents, which are used today in about 25% of all MRI procedures, as medical diagnostic tools. The process began with exploration of various technical possibilities and the conception in the years 1981 to 1982 of two types of agents (soluble paramagnetic chelates and protection colloid-stabilized colloidal particle solutions of magnetite) that eventually found embodiments in commercially available products. The pioneering products that eventually reached the market were gadopentetate dimeglumine (Magnevist, Schering AG) and the ferumoxides (Endorem, Guerbet SA; or Ferridex , Berlex Laboratories Inc.). The history of the conception phase of the technology is reconstructed here, focusing on the social dynamics rather than on technological aspects. In the period 1981 to 1982, a number of independent inventors from industry and academia conceived of water-soluble paramagnetic chelates and protection colloid-stabilized colloidal solutions of small particles of magnetite, both of acceptable tolerability, as contrast agents for MRI. Priorities on patents conditioned the further course of events. The analyzed history helps in understanding the typical roles of different institutions in technological innovation. The foundation of MRI contrast agent technology in basic science clearly was laid in academia. During the conception of practical products, industry assumed a dominant role. Beginning with the radiological evaluation of candidate products, the collaboration between industry and academia became essential.

Contrast Media↗
PubMed1999

The first year as a neophyte RSO at a liberal arts college.

Union College is a small liberal arts college in the northeast with a good reputation in science. It is also one of the oldest schools in the nation, having been founded in 1795. Langmuir and Steinmetz taught here as did Chandler, the founder of the American Chemical Society and Ellery, one of the longest tenured Secretaries of Sigma Xi. Arthur and Carter became U.S. Presidents. We claim a Nobel Prize winner, the inventor of transistors, the person who developed the methods for producing quartz crystals and fiber optics. The presidents of du Pont and Kodak attended Union College. We are referred to as the "Mother of Fraternities," and we had the first radio station on a college campus (although not through the airways). Still, until recently, our reputation has been less than admirable among radiation safety experts. This article highlights some of the experiences of a new RSO at this well-acknowledged institution.

Health Physics↗
PubMed1991

The history of the neurosurgical engine.

The opening of the skull of a living human being dates back to early civilization. The procedure may have been performed as early as the Neolithic period. Surgeons have continued to search for a better, easier, quicker, and safer method to open the skull. Today, most neurosurgeons are well acquainted with the surgical drill; however, few are familiar with the development of this instrument from its beginnings in dentistry to its use in modern neurosurgery. As cerebral localization advanced in the late 19th century, so, too, did the demands for better techniques for entering the cranial cavity and exposing more extensive areas of the brain. Mechanical devices began to appear in operating theaters throughout the world. Despite the enthusiasm of its inventors, the surgical engine was used by but a few pioneer cranial surgeons. The use of a surgical engine in the operating room has become commonplace. Its presence continues to demand respect. There is no doubt that this instrument has helped advance neurosurgery. Its development and refinement are rich in history and closely parallel the development of modern neurosurgery.

History, 18th Century↗
PubMed2001

Historical perspective on the Department of Neurosurgery at the Henry Ford Hospital.

The Henry Ford Hospital (HFH) was founded in 1915 as a philanthropic gift from Henry Ford, the automobile magnate and inventor of the Model T. The hospital and its organizational structure represented a nonsectarian facility that would provide care for all members of society. The system was patterned after the newest and most modern medical centers at the time in Europe, Canada, and the United States, including the German Krankenhauser, the Johns Hopkins Hospital, the Mayo Clinic, and the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. The HFH grew into the Henry Ford Health System in the 1970s to 1990s, with the acquisition of other hospitals, the development of a multiple-region-based clinic system through southeastern Michigan, and the development of comprehensive, vertically integrated health care systems. The Division of Neurosurgery at HFH was established by Albert Crawford in 1926. The tradition of training residents in neurosurgery began in 1946, and the residency training program was accredited by the American Board of Neurosurgery in 1954. In 1970, the Division of Neurosurgery of the Department of Surgery was combined with the Division of Neurology to create the joint Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery. A separate Department of Neurosurgery was established in 1981. Four individuals have served as chairmen of the Department of Neurosurgery at HFH, i.e., Albert Crawford (1926-1952), Robert Knighton (1952-1978), James Ausman (1978-1991), and Mark Rosenblum (1992 to the present). During the 1980s and 1990s, HFH evolved into the vertically integrated, regionally distributed Henry Ford Health System. Under the current direction of Dr. Rosenblum, the Department of Neurosurgery at HFH has grown to include 11 full-time neurosurgeons, 2 neuro-oncologists, and 3 investigators with Ph.D. degrees and has recently expanded into three additional hospitals in southeastern Michigan, paralleling the growth of the system. The faculty annually treats more than 2,000 cases in all neurosurgical subspecialties, ranging from neuro-oncological surgery, cranial base surgery, radiosurgery, cerebrovascular surgery, epilepsy surgery, treatment of movement disorders, pain and spasticity surgery, pediatric neurosurgery, and neurotrauma treatment to complex instrumentation of the spine. This article chronicles the history of the Henry Ford Health System and the Department of Neurosurgery, its research endeavors, and its residency training program.

Delivery of Health Care↗