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PubMed1974

BCG vaccination of children against leprosy: nine-year findings of the controlled WHO trial in Burma.

The leprosy incidence rates so far in the vaccinated and unvaccinated children aged 5-9 and 10-14 years are similar. The BCG-vaccinated children aged 0-4 years at intake had an incidence rate lower than that of children in the control group. BCG vaccination did not protect household contacts or children aged 5-14 years not exposed in the household, and did not influence the distribution of the forms of leprosy in the cases detected. The lepromin reaction in relation to the age at intake was consistently stronger in the vaccinated children than in those of the control group; the younger the age group the more pronounced was the difference, which was only slight in the age group 10-14 years at intake. If the results of the late lepromin reaction are related to the age at onset (when the children are older than at intake), the differences between the BCG and the control groups tend to decrease. It does not seem that the BCG-vaccinated children suffer from a less serious form of leprosy than the nonvaccinated children (most of them nonreactors to tuberculin).

Adolescent↗
PubMed1982

Skin cancer comic book: evaluation of a public educational vehicle.

A 16-page 4-color comic book was developed as part of a multimedia public education campaign designed to improve skin cancer knowledge and prevention/detection behavior. A concentrated comic book distribution to each of 8,000 households in a predominantly Caucasian area was preceded and followed by personal interviews with 300 residents randomly selected from this area. In households reading the comic book (N-122), respondents reported the following changes as a direct result of readership--avoidance of sun exposure between 10 am and 2 pm (44.3%), use of sunscreens with SPF 8 and over (38.5%), skin self-examination (34.4%), and use of protective clothing (29.5%). To a lesser extent nonreaders also showed positive increases, suggesting exposure to other educational efforts of the skin cancer campaign. Over 90% of the readers felt that the comic book was easy to read, easy to understand, and interesting. The comic book appealed less to males and to those above the age of 50 years.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

The cultural appropriateness of the WIC Program in Cherokee, North Carolina.

The data presented in this article illustrate the WIC program's ability to function within the Cherokee Indian culture. The respondents reported that WIC foods are accepted and widely distributed in the Cherokee WIC participant households. In addition, they stated that infant and child feeding practices are affected by the information they receive from advice givers. These factors in combination with the Cherokees' positive attitude toward the WIC program make for effective implementation of the national WIC nutrition goal: to maximize the WIC food package's effect on nutritional status considering all ethnic, cultural, and geographic preferences.

Attitude↗
PubMed1995

Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections among Asian female house keepers in Abha District, Saudi Arabia.

A group of 5,518 female Asian house keepers working in Abha District of Saudi Arabia was examined (1990 through 1992) to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections. They came from Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Philippines and Thailand. Fresh stool specimens were obtained in special containers and examined by light microscopy of wet smears in normal saline and Lugoll's iodine solution within one hour of collection. The study revealed an overall prevalence of 46.5% which was higher than that reported among the Saudi population. The common parasites found included Trichuris trichiura (28.8%), Ascaris lumbricoides (22.2%), Hookworm (14.9%), Enterobius vermicularis (0.8%), Strongyloides stercoralis (0.6%), Entamoeba histolytica (1.2%), Hymenolepis nana (0.2%), and Giardia intestinalis (0.1%). The prevalence of intestinal parasites was statistically different among various studied nationalities. The possibility of spreading such diseases throughout the community should be considered in the light of the nature of work of this group being in close contact with different family members. It is recommended that all expatriate workers be checked and treated if necessary on arrival for the first time or from vacation. This policy must be strictly monitored, particularly for female house keepers.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Ivermectin-based control of onchocerciasis in northern Cameroon: individual factors influencing participation in community treatment.

A study aimed at determining individual factors associated with participation in community treatment with ivermectin was conducted in a village hyperendemic for onchocerciasis in northern Cameroon. The respective influences of sex, age, place of residence, distance between the compound and the dosing point, compound size, and participation in treatment by authoritative individuals in the compound was evaluated using univariate and multivariate analysis. Participation in treatment was closely associated with the attitude of the compound heads. Participation of compound heads in treatment increased as the household size increased, and as the distance to the distribution point diminished. This may be explained by the fact that getting information on health programmes is easier in large households whose members are involved in various social activities, and in compounds located near the village centre. Staff involved in health education should take this issue into account, and try to ensure circulation of information particularly to those living in small or remote compounds.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

A multi-dimensional model for projecting family households--with an illustrative numerical application.

"This paper develops a multi-dimensional model for projecting households and population. The model is constructed to ensure consistency between the demographic events occurring to males and females as well as to parents and children. The model permits projection of characteristics of households, their members, and population structure, using data that are usually available from conventional sources. Unlike the traditional headship-rate method, our model can closely link the projected households with demographic rates. The model includes both nuclear and three-generation households, so that it can be used for countries where nuclear households are dominant and for countries where nuclear and three-generation households are both important. The illustrative application to China, although brief, provides some policy-relevant information about future trends of Chinese household size, structure, and the age and sex distribution of the population, with a focus on the elderly."

Age Distribution↗
PubMed1999

The community and orthodontic care. Part II: Community-perceived importance of correcting various dentofacial anomalies. Part III: Community perception of the importance of orthodontic treatment.

Part II. A professionally-managed telephone survey was undertaken to assess the community-perceived importance of correcting various dentofacial anomalies. The sample included 505 respondents, aged eighteen and over, from metropolitan and non-metropolitan households across the state of Victoria. The sample distribution had a 95 per cent confidence limit with a 5 per cent margin of error and closely matched the known population distributions for age, sex and geographical location. This article forms part two of a series. It was found that the correction of functional problems such as "difficulty chewing or speaking" was considered to be very important, regardless of age, sex or geographical area. The correction of other factors such as "top teeth which stick out in front", "bottom teeth which stick out in front" or "crooked or crowded front teeth" was also considered to be important. "Spaced front teeth" was the factor considered least important for correction within all groups. It is interesting to note that, for all factors, correction seemed to be considered more important by females and non-metropolitan respondents than by males and metropolitan respondents, In contrast to previous studies in which it has been suggested that patients seek treatment mainly for reasons of aesthetics, the results of this study have shown a definite community recognition of the importance of functional problems as well. Part III. A professionally-managed telephone survey was undertaken to assess the community's perceptions of the importance of having "straight teeth and a nice smile", to assess if a Medicare (the Australian government health benefit scheme) rebate should be provided for orthodontic treatment and to assess whether respondents had any private health insurance that would help cover the cost of orthodontic treatment. The sample included 505 respondents, aged eighteen and over,, from metropolitan and non-metropolitan households across the state of Victoria. The sample distribution had a 95 per cent confidence limit with a 5 per cent margin of error and closely matched the known population distributions for age, sex and geographical location. It was found that a very large percentage of respondents considered the need for "straight teeth and a nice smile" to be very important. This finding is supported by the many studies showing the importance of facial attractiveness to the lives of all people, young and old. Only a small percentage of respondents indicated that they had any private dental health insurance that would help cover the cost of orthodontic treatment. Efforts should be made to inform those responsible for the planning of orthodontic services in both the public and private sectors of the importance of the community's perceptions of aesthetics, and the large amount of published work that reinforces the impact of facial attractiveness on people's lives.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

The distribution of nutrient intake within families.

1. During 1978 and 1979, the 343 members of seventy-nine families representative of households with two adults and two or three children living in Cambridge, England, completed 7-d records of food consumption using the semi-weighed technique. Nutrient intakes were calculated using food composition tables. 2. Amongst males, the average intakes of energy and most nutrients were highest in men and boys aged 11-17 years, and lowest in boys under 5 years. Amongst females, intakes were highest in girls aged 11-17 years, and lowest in those under 5 years. At each age, intakes in males were generally higher than those in females. 3. Nutrient distribution within families was described using the ratio, intake of each subject:intake of the male head of the household. The problems inherent in using this ratio are discussed. 4. The distribution of nutrient intakes within the families was not in accordance with the recommended daily amounts (RDA). Men and young boys received more than their fair share of the family diet, while women and girls aged 5-17 years received less. 5. Estimates of dietary adequacy based on the averages of family consumption and requirements (RDA) concealed up to twofold variations in the adequacy of diet of different age-sex-groups. 6. The interpretation of dietary adequacy in household food surveys should take into account the distribution of nutrient intakes within the household, as the distribution may be substantially different from that predicted by the RDA.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

A low-cost intervention for cleaner drinking water in Karachi, Pakistan.

OBJECTIVE: To pilot test an inexpensive, home-based water decontamination and storage system in a low-income neighborhood of Karachi. METHODS: Fifty households received a 20-L plastic water storage vessel with a high-quality spout and a regular supply of diluted hypochlorite solution. Twenty-five control households were recruited. Water samples were collected at baseline and during unannounced follow-up visits 1, 3, 6, and 10 weeks later. RESULTS: Baseline drinking water samples among intervention households were contaminated with a mean 9397 colony-forming units (cfu)/100 mL of thermotolerant coliforms compared with a mean 10,990 cfu/100 mL from controls. After intervention the mean concentration of thermotolerant coliforms decreased by 99.8% among the intervention households compared with an 8% reduction among controls. Two years after vessel distribution, 34 (68%) of the families were still using the vessel. Thirteen of the households had stopped using their vessel because it had broken after more than 6 months of use, a pattern most consistent with ultraviolet radiation-induced degradation of the plastic. CONCLUSIONS: In a highly contaminated environment, a specifically designed water storage container and in-home water chlorination was acceptable and markedly improved water quality. Where plastic water vessels will be exposed to substantial sunlight, ultraviolet light stabilizers should be incorporated into the plastic.

Costs and Cost Analysis↗
PubMed2005

Determinants of exposure to volatile organic compounds in four Oklahoma cities.

To begin to develop generalized models for estimating personal exposure to ambient air pollutants within diverse populations, the design of the Oklahoma Urban Air Toxics Study incorporated eight dichotomous macroenvironmental and household factors that were hypothesized to be potential determinants of exposure. Personal, indoor, and outdoor samples of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were collected over 24-h monitoring periods in 42 households, together with activity diaries and data on the participants' residences. The distributions of the VOC concentrations were moderately to highly left-censored, and were mostly bimodal. The ATSDR minimal risk level (MRL) was exceeded in a small number of the samples. Personal and indoor concentrations tended to be higher than outdoor concentrations, indicating that indoor exposures were dominated by indoor sources. However, indoor concentrations were not correlated with the permeability of the residence, suggesting that the observed indoor concentrations reflected mostly localized, short-term emissions. The influence of the eight dichotomous factors and of the presence of an attached garage was evaluated using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test and by comparison of "excursion fractions", that is, the fractions of each distributions exceeding 10% of the MRL. Dry weather and absence of children in the household were found to be associated with higher exposures in personal or indoor exposures. Given the small sample size, it is possible that these factors were confounded with unidentified household characteristics or activities that were the true determinants of exposure.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Transmission of hepatitis A through household contact.

In the USA, cost effectiveness assessments support childhood hepatitis A vaccination in geographical areas with elevated disease rates, but not nationally. However, these studies do not address the reduction in disease transmission which may result from routine childhood vaccination. Using decision analysis, we estimated the number and age distribution of secondary hepatitis A cases occurring within households with an index case. Based on the age of the index case, we determined household size and age composition, the proportion of household members susceptible to hepatitis A, the probability of disease transmission, and the likelihood secondarily infected household members would exhibit symptoms. Our model indicates that for every 100 index cases age 6-11 years, 47.2 secondary infections would occur within households, with 23.1 causing overt disease. Lower transmission rates for older index cases reflect smaller household sizes and a higher proportion of household contacts with hepatitis A immunity. When disease transmission rates are applied to a model simulating lifetime risks of hepatitis A, universal vaccination of an annual USA birth cohort is estimated to prevent 24 100 cases of overt disease among household contacts in addition to 71 000 cases among vaccinees. Sensitivity analysis provides a wide range of estimates, but even conservative assumptions suggest routine vaccination would yield an important reduction in secondary cases. Evaluations of hepatitis A prevention should consider the ability of immunization to protect household and other personal contacts.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

[Immunization coverage survey: empirical assessment of the cluster sampling method proposed by the World Health Organization].

OBJECTIVE: To assess sample representativeness and the precision of estimates of immunization coverage obtained with the 30 by 7 cluster sampling method proposed by the World Health Organization, by applying the method to determine immunization coverage in two municipalities (Diadema and São Caetano do Sul) in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, in 2000. METHOD: The representativeness of the samples was determined by comparing the census sectors picked by lot for the surveyed sectors and for the nonsurveyed sectors in both municipalities, in terms of socioeconomic and demographic characteristics (age distribution of the population, schooling, proportion of households headed by a women, monthly income of household head, and sanitary conditions of the home (piped-in water, connected to the sewer system)). The precision of the coverage estimates for the vaccines in the basic immunization schedule-BCG; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus (DPT); poliomyelitis; hepatitis B; measles; and measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR)-was determined by calculating the design effect and the width of the confidence intervals. Precision was considered to be satisfactory if the design effect was below 2.0 and the confidence interval width was below 10%. RESULTS: In both municipalities the comparison between the surveyed and nonsurveyed sectors showed a similar distribution in terms of socioeconomic and demographic variables. Concerning the precision of the estimates, the design effect was below 2.0 for all the vaccines, both in São Caetano do Sul and Diadema. In Diadema, the confidence interval width was below 10% for all the vaccines, except for MMR (10.1%). In São Caetano do Sul, only 89% of the expected sample were included, so the width of the confidence interval was slightly above 10% for the poliomyelitis vaccine (10.3%), the hepatitis B vaccine (11.8%), the mumps vaccine (10.4%), the MMR (12.9%), and the complete schedule (11.2%). CONCLUSION: The cluster sampling method proposed by the World Health Organization produces representative data as long as the methodological procedures for selecting the sample are rigorously followed in the field.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Entomological aspects of Chagas' disease transmission in the domestic habitat, Argentina.

OBJECTIVE: To study the risk of Trypanosoma cruzi domestic transmission using an entomological index and to explore its relationship with household's characteristics and cultural aspects. METHODS: There were studied 158 households in an endemic area in Argentina. Each household was classified according to an entomological risk indicator (number of risky bites/human). A questionnaire was administered to evaluate risk factors among householders. RESULTS: Infested households showed a wide range of risk values (0 to 5 risky bites/human) with skewed distribution, a high frequency of lower values and few very high risk households. Of all collected Triatoma infestans, 44% had had human blood meals whereas 27% had had dogs or chickens blood meals. Having dogs and birds sharing room with humans increased the risk values. Tidy clean households had contributed significantly to lower risk values as a result of low vector density. The infested households showed a 24.3% correlation between time after insecticide application and the number of vectors. But there was no correlation between the time after insecticide application and T. infestans' infectivity. The statistical analysis showed a high correlation between current values of the entomological risk indicator and Trypanosoma cruzi seroprevalence in children. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of T. cruzi domestic transmission assessed using an entomological index show a correlation with children seroprevalence for Chagas' disease and householders' habits.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Representing inequities in the distribution of socio-economic benefits and environmental risk.

There is currently no standard method for analyzing claims of environmental inequity. Neither is there a database of statistics on the extent of relationship between regional indicators of environmental quality, likely sources of pollution, and the demographic characteristics of affected populations. The resolution of environmental disputes is often hampered by inadequate communication between stakeholder groups about their perceptions and prioritization of the issues in dispute and by differential access to information about the issues by each stakeholder group. This paper describes a web-based tool, ICEP, that uses multi-layered GIS maps to establish a standard method for analyzing claims of environmental inequity and establish a database of correlation coefficients between environmental indicators, industry type by SIC code, and demographic characteristics of the population in proximity to noxious facilities. The maps are generated from stakeholder reports of environmental quality and are designed to be accessible via the Internet. This provides stakeholders with direct access to graphical displays of the perceptions of their co-stakeholders and provides all groups with links to relevant information sources about the issues in dispute. ICEP enhances existing community environmental websites like Scorecard and Envirofacts by providing displays of median household income as a measure of the distribution of benefits accrued within an area.

Databases, Factual↗
PubMed1998

Different household formation systems in Hungary at the end of the eighteenth century: variations on John Hajnal's thesis.

"John Hajnal's pathbreaking paper about the European marriage patterns and his household formation theory provoked high interest [among] researchers even far beyond the border of the historical demographic research. Examining them through the Hungarian sources we can say that both the declared factors and variables of household formation and their regional strength and territorial distribution cannot be interpreted unanimously and adequately with the rules established by John Hajnal. Maybe it is better not to think in universalistic regimes but, moreover, adapt a regional and temporal frame of reference."

Demography↗
PubMed1991

Social policy and economic change in Chile, 1974-1985: the case of children.

Taking the case of Chile in the period 1974-85, this article examines the impact of economic conditions and social policies on poor households, and especially on children. The study starts with an analysis of the nature of the economic policies implemented in Chile during 1974-85 and their effects on income distribution and on the material living conditions of poor households. It then looks into the social policies, government expenditure, and the main programs directed toward poor households and children, as well as at the changes in child welfare that followed. From this macrosocial level the study diverts to the household level and describes, based on several in-depth studies of small samples of households in the Santiago metropolitan area during the years 1982-85, the daily experiences of poor households--their deteriorating economic conditions and the behaviors adopted to stretch scarce resources to satisfy basic needs. The final part draws some lessons from the Chilean case.

Child↗
PubMed2003

Secondary analysis of a marketing research database reveals patterns in dairy product purchases over time.

OBJECTIVE: Development of a method using marketing research data to assess food purchase behavior and consequent nutrient availability for purposes of nutrition surveillance, evaluation of intervention effects, and epidemiologic studies of diet-health relationships. DESIGN: Data collected on household food purchases accrued over a 13-week period were selected by using Universal Product Code numbers and household characteristics from a marketing research database. Universal Product Code numbers for 39,408 dairy product purchases were linked to a standard reference for food composition to estimate the nutrient content of foods purchased over time. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Two thousand one hundred sixty-one households located in Victoria, Texas, and surrounding communities who were active members of a frequent shopper program. ANALYSES: Demographic characteristics of sample households and the nutrient content of their dairy product purchases were analyzed using frequency distribution, cross tabulation, analysis of variance, and t test procedures. RESULTS: A method for using marketing research data was successfully used to estimate household purchases of specific foods and their nutrient content from a marketing database containing hundreds of thousands of records. Distribution of dairy product purchases and their concomitant nutrients between Hispanic and non-Hispanic households were significant (P<.01, P<.001, respectively) and sustained over time. APPLICATION/CONCLUSIONS: Purchase records from large, nationally representative panels of shoppers, such as those maintained by major market research companies, might be used to accomplish detailed longitudinal epidemiologic studies or surveillance of national food- and nutrient-purchasing patterns within and between countries and segments of their respective populations.

Adolescent↗