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[Light-induced redox conversions of cytochrome f in pea leaves].

Redox conversions of cytochrome f were studied in intact pea leaves by double wavelength difference spectrophotometry. Using the inhibition of the photosystem II activity by far red light (719 nm) or diurone, it was found that cytochrome f is located between two photosystems on the oxidative side of photosystem I. The inhibitors of phosphorylation, , e.g. antimycin A and phloridzine, as well as the uncoupler, methylamine, strongly decreased electron transport through the carrier. It is concluded that cytochrome f is functioning in the non-cyclic phosphorylation. It is suggested that in vivo cytochrome f is not coupled with cyclic electron transfer.

Chloroplasts↗

[Evaluation of the effect of ecologically hazardous pollutants on the bacteriolytic activity of the predatory bacterium Bdellovibrio].

We studied the effect of various concentrations of ecologically hazardous pollutants, urea, phenol, diuron, and cadmium ions, on the physiological activity and survival of the parasitic bacterium Bdellovibrio. Experiments showed that the survival of bdellovibrios in the presence of the pollutants was two times higher when they were cultivated on agar than when they were cultivated in liquid medium. The data obtained are in agreement with the recent concept of the surface-associated state as a survival strategy of bdellovibrios in various ecosystems.

Bdellovibrio↗

[Determination of soil organic carbon adsorption coefficients of pollutants using soil column liquid chromatography with stepwise adsorption].

A novel method for the determination of soil organic carbon adsorption coefficients (K(oc)) of pollutants was established using soil column liquid chromatography with stepwise adsorption. With this method the adsorption amount of samples at various concentrations on soil can be obtained in a single experiment. The values of K(oc) can be calculated through adsorption isotherms. The soil column can be used without change or desorption throughout the whole experiment. This method leads to a shorter experimental duration, simplified experimental procedure and experimental error reduction. The values of log K(oc) for tebuconazole, azinphos-methyl, diuron, atrazine, prometryn, phenol and naphthalene on the European reference soil of 3# were measured to be 2.70, 2.87, 2.47, 2.26, 3.09, 1.51 and 2.77, respectively, which are consistent with the values reported in the literature.

Adsorption↗

Quantitative and qualitative hydrologic balance for a suburban watershed with a separate sewer system (Nantes, France).

A qualitative and quantitative budget at the outlet of the storm-water runoff system of a small suburban watershed is presented together with some data regarding waste-water. 445,000 m3 (34% of the rain-water volume) were drained by the storm-water runoff system and 40,879 m3 by the waste-water system from September 2002 to March 2004. Storm-water runoff is generally not heavily polluted with regard to trace metals but concentrations occasionally exceed the standards for surface water of good quality. On the contrary, pesticides (diuron and glyphosate) have very high concentrations especially in spring and autumn when their use is maximum. As the St Joseph storm-water runoff is finally discharged into the Erdre River, measures to reduce the use of these pollutants should be considered.

Diuron↗

[Relationships of photoreduction of substituted salts of 4,4'-dipyridyl by isolated chloroplasts].

Kinetic relationships of photoreduction of 4,4'-dimethyldipyridyl and 4,4'-dibenzyldipyridyl in the presence of chlorplast were studied. It was found that photoreduction leads to the establishment of photosteady state in which the rate of photoreduction is equal to the rate of dark oxidation of reduced form. Kinetics of dark oxidation of photoreduced form were investigated. The study of inhibition of photoreduction of methylviologen and potassium ferricyanide by diuron was performed. It was shown that the nature of inhibition of both reactions is completely identical. The effect of hydrogen ions concentration and gas phase composition was studied. Stabilization of low potential electron acceptors to the oxidation by molecular oxygen in the reaction of photooxidation of water is discussed.

Chloroplasts↗

[Proton absorption by chloroplasts in cyclic electron transport catalyzed by photosystem I in anaerobic conditions].

Proton absorption by pea chloroplasts in anaerobic conditions under inhibition of non-cyclic electron transport with diurone is investigated. 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) and tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine (TMPD) are used as cofactors of cyclic electron transport. Proton absorption in the absence of methylviologen is found to take place only in experiments with DCPIP, while in the presence of methylviologen it is observed with both cofactors, being considerably higher is the case of TMDP. In experiments with DCPIP absorbed protons comprise two fractions differing in the rate of the output of particles from tilakoids and in the number of the particles. The presence of these two fractions is suggested to be due to the well-known fact of the presence of two sites of electrone intake into electron transport chain by reduced DCPIP. On the basis of dependency of fraction composition on DCPIP concentration and of the mode of dibromothimoquinone, gramicidin D and antimycin A action on these fractions, it is suggested that protons of "a slow" fraction are capable to participate preferably in the ATP synthesis.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗

[Pesticide pollution of groundwater and drinking water by the processes of artificial groundwater enrichment or coastal filtration: underrated sources of contamination].

The research objective of this study is to monitor the degree of pesticide pollution in public drinking waters and to characterise the pathways by which these substances get into potable waters. Public drinking waters, raw waters, ground waters, and surface waters in an area with intensive agriculture were analysed for pesticides and nitrate during the years 1987-1992. The monitoring reveals that only potable waters of water works using the process of artificial ground water recharge are polluted by pesticides. The very influence of surface water on the degree of pesticide contamination can be shown up to the wells. Wells that are influenced by bank filtration or infiltration contain significantly (P < 0.001) higher amounts and a greater number of substances than pure ground water wells. Most often triazines and phenylureas are analysed. Among the tested water works the artificial ground water recharge is the main factor for the input of pesticides into the aquifer and the drinking water. Percolation experiments, and parallel seasonal changes of pesticides and nitrate in raw and infiltration water document a high mobility during the subsoil passage and an easy vulnerability of the aquifer. There is no correlation between pesticides and nitrate. So nitrates are not suited as an indicator for pesticide pollution. Almost all tested surface waters, including channels, contain pesticides in highly varying concentrations during the whole year and are thus always a possible source for an input into the recharged ground water. In addition to agricultural runoffs a remarkable contamination of rivers with the herbicide diuron caused by municipal waste waters can be observed in the summer. Because of insufficient elimination of herbicides like triazines and phenylureas during bank filtration or infiltration and because of the high loads of surface waters with pesticides a minimisation of pesticide losses within the whole catchment area, especially of runoffs into surface waters, and the abstention from the use of slowly degradable herbicides in cities, on railways or in private gardens are inevitable. At the present time, however, a protection of ground and public drinking water from pesticide contamination can only be achieved by treating surface or ground waters with activated carbon.

Analysis of Variance↗

A new on-line micellar-enhanced photochemically-induced fluorescence method for determination of phenylurea herbicide residues in water.

A new flow injection analysis micellar-enhanced photochemically induced fluorescence (FIA-MEPIF) method was developed for the determination of four phenylurea herbicides, including isoproturon, neburon, linuron and diuron. On-line photoconversion under UV irradiation of these herbicides into strongly fluorescent photoproducts was performed in buffered aqueous solutions and in the presence of surfactants [sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) or cetyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (CTAC)] at micellar concentrations. The MEPIF and FIA parameters were optimized. The analytical figures of merit for the determination of the four herbicides were satisfactory, with concentration linear dynamic ranges over about one to two orders of magnitude, detection limits of 0.33-0.92 mg[sol ]L and relative standard deviations of 1.3-11%, according to the compound. Application to the analysis of fortified tap water samples yielded good recovery values (91-103%, according to the herbicide). Our results show that the on-line MEPIF-FIA method is simple, versatile, sensitive and can be easily applied to quantify pollutant residues in multiresidue systems.

Calibration↗

A biosensor for the detection of triazine and phenylurea herbicides designed using Photosystem II coupled to a screen-printed electrode.

A biosensor for the detection of triazine- and phenylurea-type herbicides was constructed using isolated Photosystem II (PS II) complexes as a biosensing element. PSII isolated from the thermophilic cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus was immobilized on the surface of a screen-printed sensor composed of a graphite working electrode and Ag/AgCl reference electrode deposited on a polymeric substrate. The biosensor was mounted in a flow microcell with illumination. The principle of the detection was based on the fact that herbicides selectively block PSII electron transport activity in a concentration-dependent manner. Changes of the activity were registered amperometrically as the rate of photoreduction of an artificial electron acceptor. The setup resulted in a reusable herbicide biosensor with a good stability (half-life of 24 h) and limit of detection of approximately 10(-9) M for diuron, atrazine and simazine.

Biosensing Techniques↗

Mechanisms of direct and TiO2-photocatalysed UV degradation of phenylurea herbicides.

Phenylurea herbicides undergo low-yield (phi(PI) <15 %) monophotonic photoionisation upon 193-nm laser flash excitation. The so-formed radical cations (phenylurea.+) are highly acidic (-1.5 < pKa <0.5) and deprotonate readily to yield the corresponding neutral radical (phenylurea.). Pulse radiolysis experiments allowed limitation of the reduction potential of phenylurea.+ within 2.22 V versus the normal hydrogen electrode (NHE) < E degrees (phenylurea.+/phenylurea) < 2.43 V versus NHE. The main photoproducts of UVC (lambda=193 nm) photodegradation of phenylureas correspond to a photo-Fries rearrangement. One-electron reduction with e-(aq) yields the corresponding radical anions (phenylurea.-), for which 4.3< pKa < 5.33. The rate constants for reaction with e-(aq) show that in photocatalysis the generation of phenylurea.- and O2.- on the surface of the photocatalyst may be competitive. High reactivity toward e-(aq) is predicted from linear free-energy relationships (LFER) for phenylureas bearing electron-withdrawing groups. Reaction with HO. takes place mainly via addition to the aromatic ring and/or H. abstraction from a saturated carbon atom (98 %), rather than one-electron oxidation (2 %). High reactivity toward oxidation by HO. is predicted from LFER for phenylureas bearing electron-donating groups. Adsorption studies for TiO2 in its polymorphic forms of rutile and anatase, as well as with the commercial mixture Degussa P-25, show photocatalysis is independent of the specific area of the catalyst. A variety of compounds are generated during the photocatalytic degradation of Diuron, while only two hydroxychloro derivatives are observed upon prolonged direct 365 nm irradiation. The photocatalytic degradation proceeds mainly by oxidation of the Me group of the side chain, hydroxylation of the aromatic ring, and dechlorination. The photoproducts of photocatalytic degradation differ from one polymorphic form of TiO2 to another.

Adsorption↗

Chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements of isolated spinach thylakoids obtained by using single-laser-based flow cytometry.

Flow cytometry data of spinach thylakoid membrane preparations indicate the presence of a homogeneous thylakoid population. Fluorescence data from a flow cytometer and comparison with data from two other fluorometers show that chlorophyll a fluorescence detected with a flow cytometer has the character of maximum fluorescence (Fmax), not of the constant component (Fo). This conclusion is important since Fo measures fluorescence that is affected mostly by changes in excitation energy transfer and Fmax-Fo (the variable fluorescence) by changes in photochemistry. This was demonstrated by: 1) The light intensity as well as diffusion rate dependence of the quenching effect of various quinones (p-benzoquinone, phenyl-benzoquinone, and 2,5-dibromo-3-methyl-6-isopropyl-p-benzoquinone, DBMIB) on fluorescence yield; quenching for the same concentration of these quinones was lower at the higher than at the lower light intensities. 2) Temperature dependence of the fluorescence yield; increasing the temperature from 20 to 70 degrees C did not show an increase in fluorescence yield using a flow cytometer in contrast to measurements with weak excitation light, but similar to those obtained for Fmax. 3) Addition of an inhibitor diuron up to 100 microM did not change the fluorescence intensity. A comparison of quenching of fluorescence by various quinones obtained by flow cytometry with those by other fluorometers suggests that the high intensity used in the cytometry produces unique results: the rate of reduction of quinones in much larger than the rate of equilibration with the bulk quinones.

Chlorophyll↗

Influence of pesticides on the growth of cyanobacteria.

Two unicellular and two filamentous cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) were exposed under conditions optimal for photoautotrophic growth to eleven pesticides. Low concentrations (0.01 to 5 ppm) of diuron, atrazine, and paraquat inhibited growth. With MCPA, MCPP, 2,4-D, milstem and ethrel, marked inhibitory effects were achieved only at concentrations above 100 ppm. Growth was inhibited by glyphosate, DDT, and thiram at intermediate concentrations. In some cases, the effective concentration of the pesticide varied considerably with the organism tested.

Cyanobacteria↗

Studies on the biogenesis of an enzymatically active complex III of the respiratory chain from yeast mitochondria.

Complex III isolated from yeast mitochondria catalyzed an antimycin A and Diuron-sensitive coenzyme QH2-cytochrome c reductase activity with a turnover number of 15.7 sec(-1) and contained 10 nmoles of cytochrome b and 4.6 nmoles of cytochrome c1 per mg of protein. Electrophoresis in sodium dodecyl sulfate acrylamide gels resolved Complex III into 10 bands with apparent molecular weights of 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 29,000, 24,000, 17,000, 16,000, 12,000, 8,400, and 5,800. Yeast cells were labeled under nongrowing conditions with (35S)-methionine in the absence or presence of inhibitors of cytoplasmic or mitochondrial protein synthesis. Labeled Complex III was isolated by immunoprecipitation from detergent-solubilized mitochondria using anti-serum raised against the purified complex. Analysis of the immunoprecipitates by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed that a 30,000-dalton protein, cytochrome b, as well as 16,000-dalton protein were labeled in the presence of cycloheximide, indicating that they are products of mitochondrial protein synthesis. Immunoprecipitates from mitochondria obtained from cells labeled in the presence of chloramphenicol contained a new radioactive peak with a molecular weight of 100,000. In addition, significant decreases in the labeling of the proteins with molecular weights of 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, and 16,000 were observed. When Complex III was isolated by immunoprecipitation from intact spheroplasts after a 5-minute pulse with (35S)-methionine, the 100,000-dalton protein was labeled in the immunoprecipitate whether or not chloramphenicol was present; however, after a 1-hour chase with unlabeled methionine, decreased labeling of the 100,000-dalton protein was observed concomitant with an increased labeling of the 50,000- and 40,000-dalton proteins. These results suggest that a protein with a molecular weight of 100,000 may either be a precursor or a partially assembled form of other proteins of Complex III, most probably the two largest polypeptides.

Cytochrome b Group↗

psbA mutation (Asn266 to Thr) in Senecio vulgaris L. confers resistance to several PS II-inhibiting herbicides.

DNA sequence analysis of the psbA gene encoding the D1 protein of photosystem II (PS II), the target site of PS II-inhibiting herbicides, identified a point mutation (Asn266 to Thr) in a bromoxynil-resistant Senecio vulgaris L. population collected from peppermint fields in Oregon. Although this mutation has been previously reported in Synechocystis, this is the first report of this particular point mutation in a higher plant exhibiting resistance to PS II-inhibiting herbicides. The resistant population displayed high-level resistance to bromoxynil and terbacil (R/S ratio 10.1 and 9.3, respectively) and low-level resistance to metribuzin and hexazinone (R/S ratio 4.2 and 2.6, respectively) when compared with the susceptible population. However, the population was not resistant to the triazine herbicides atrazine and simazine or to the urea herbicide diuron. A chlorophyll fluorescence assay confirmed the resistance levels and patterns of cross-resistance of the whole-plant studies. The resistant S. vulgaris plants produced fewer seeds. Differences in cross-resistance patterns to PS II-inhibiting herbicides and the difference in fitness cost could be exploited in a weed management program.

DNA Mutational Analysis↗

Herbicide loss following application to a roadside.

Risk assessments for herbicides applied to roads are limited by the lack of knowledge on the fate and behaviour of the compounds in the urban environment. This study was designed to address this deficiency by quantifying the percentage loss of six herbicides following application to a roadside. Herbicides were applied on two occasions to a 16-m length of roadside and kerb edge. An automatic water sampler was used to collect run-off, draining to a single gulley pot, until 25 mm of rain had fallen. Samples were analysed for glyphosate, atrazine, diuron, oxadiazon and oryzalin, and peak concentrations were 650, 2210, 1810, 390 and 70 micrograms litre-1 respectively. Isoxaben was also applied, but concentrations in run-off were below the limit of detection (10 micrograms litre-1). Herbicide concentrations all followed a similar pattern of rapid decline throughout the first rain event following application, with the majority of loss occurring within the first 10 mm of accumulated rainfall, but compounds of high solubility and low Koc produced the highest peak concentrations. For those compounds of relatively low solubility and moderate Koc, application rate may be an influential factor in determining herbicide loss for these compounds. The percentage loss of the active substances applied differed between compounds, ranging from < 10% to 73%. The ecotoxicological significance of the results is discussed.

Environmental Monitoring↗

Herbicide loss following application to a railway.

Railways have been identified as a potential source of herbicides detected in surface and groundwaters, but there are few data to support this theory. Two studies were undertaken to investigate the fate of herbicides applied to railway trackbeds: a pilot study in a section of a disused, but intact, cutting where runoff and throughflow were sampled from trenches adjacent to the treated area, and a larger scale study on 0.75 km of embankment where surface water from the drainage ditch at the base of the embankment and groundwater were sampled. In the pilot study, peak concentrations of atrazine, diuron and glyphosate (1280, 210 and 15 microg litre(-1) respectively) were detected 6days after treatment (DAT). Oxadiazon, oryzalin and isoxaben were not detected above their limits of quantification. Lower concentrations were detected 81 DAT (10 and 0.8 microg litre(-1) of atrazine and glyphosate respectively). In the larger scale study, herbicides were not detected, in either the surface water or groundwater, at concentrations above the limit of detection that could be attributed to application to the railway. Rainfall volume and depth to sampling point may partly explain the different results obtained from the two studies. The findings are compared with herbicide losses from other 'hard surfaces'.

Environmental Monitoring↗

Determination of dichloroanilines in human urine by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry: validation protocol and establishment of Reference Values in a population group living in central Italy.

3,4- and 3,5-Dichloroanilines (DCAs) are common markers of some non-persistent pesticides, e.g. linuron, diuron, vinclozolin, and iprodione. The general population may be exposed to these DCAs and/or their precursors mainly through diet. Since adverse effects on human health, such as endocrine disruption, have been reported, biological monitoring is essential for exposure assessment both of occupationally exposed subjects and of the general population. A highly sensitive and selective gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method has been developed for the determination of 3,4- and 3,5-DCAs in urine using 4-chloro-2-methylaniline as an internal standard. The selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode was employed for quantitation of the analytes. The sample treatment procedure is simple and fast and no derivatization is required. The overall method was validated including uncertainty measurement. The limit of detection (LOD) and the lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) were determined to be 0.005 and 0.010 microg/L for both analytes. The method was then applied to the establishment of reference values for a population group living in a rural area of central Italy (Novafeltria, Marche). A total of 151 out of 153 samples were found to be positive for 3,5-DCA, and 81.7% were positive for 3,4-DCA. For this group, 3,4-DCA levels ranged from 0.01 to 6.19 microg/L, while 3,5-DCA urinary concentrations were between 0.02 and 6.71 microg/L.

Aniline Compounds↗

Biotests using unicellular algae and ciliates for predicting long-term effects of toxicants.

Test systems for predicting long-term effects with the freshwater algae Chlamydomonas reinhardi and Scenedesmus subspicatus and the ciliate Tetrahymena pyriformis were evaluated with respect to the following reference chemicals: atrazine, bromacil, diuron, methyl parathion, lindane, 3,4-dichloroaniline, pentachlorophenol, cadmium, copper, and the volatile 1,2-dichloropropane. In growth-inhibition tests under static conditions the algae revealed a higher sensitivity to the toxicants than the ciliate except for lindane and methyl parathion. Comparison of the impairment of photosynthetic efficiency (EPR, NOEC 24 hr) with the inhibition of growth (NOEC 72 hr) of S. subspicatus revealed a higher sensitivity of the EPR parameter for inhibitors of the photosynthesis. A flowthrough system was developed for long-term tests and testing of volatile and instable substances. Under flowthrough conditions C. reinhardi was more susceptible to the chemicals than under static test conditions, except for pentachlorophenol. Due to the high volatility, 1,2-dichloropropane was only tested in the flowthrough system. The data obtained from these toxicity tests provide information about effects on organisms representing different levels of the aquatic food web, possessing differences in sensitivity against toxicants. The presented flowthrough system allows the testing of volatile and instable chemicals, problematic in static test systems, and the EPR parameter is suitable for the early characterization of chemicals acting as specific inhibitors of the photosynthetic electron transport chain.

Animals↗