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PubMed2006

[The problems and management of excessive crying and fussing in infants].

Excessive crying and fussing in young infants, often called "infantile colic", is a common and often serious problem for parents. It is also associated with infant sleep disturbance and possible disruptions in family life. As such, parents may undertake a variety of actions to stop excessive infant crying, some of which may be detrimental to infant health (e.g., physical shaking). Despite its potentially substantial negative health consequences, there remains no consensus regarding a definitive definition of excessive crying. Available definitions mostly focus on infant crying duration and its effect on parents. A number of different definitions, measurements, causes of crying, and settling management are presented in this article to help foster an understanding of this issue among nurses and to assist parents to cope effectively.

Colic↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Electromyographic study of facial expressions during pathological laughing and crying.

We studied facial expressions during pathological laughing and crying in 6 patients using EMG investigation. Increased EMG discharges of M. frontalis and M. corrugator supercilii are characteristic of pathological laughing and crying in addition to an increase of EMG discharges of M. orbicularis oculi, M. levator labii superiors, M. zygomaticus major, M. risorius and M. mentalis which we observed during natural laughing. Its patterns of facial expressions are similar to that of crying in normals. From the fact that normals show the same expression of laughing and crying in an extreme emotional outburst, we speculate that pathological laughing and crying is maximal manifestations of facial expressions caused by a release phenomenon of the upper center.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Crying-induced bronchospasm in childhood asthma: response to nebulized metaproterenol 5% and sodium cromoglycate 1%.

Five asthmatic children (2 to 5 years) with persistent crying-induced bronchospasm refractory to concomitant oral theophylline and metaproterenol for 4 weeks were selected for an 8-week uncontrolled study with nebulized metaproterenol 5% and sodium cromoglycate 1%. All five patients had reduction in both crying and non-crying-related asthma. Three patients had reduction in crying behavior. Nebulized metaproterenol and sodium cromoglycate may be effective in treating crying-induced bronchospasm refractory to oral bronchodilators.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1988

Newborn pain cries and vagal tone: parallel changes in response to circumcision.

Clinical studies have demonstrated that the cries of chronically stressed, medically compromised infants are characteristically higher and more variable in pitch than those of healthy infants. Other studies have indicated that the vagal tone of chronically stressed infants is significantly reduced in comparison to that of normal infants. A neural model of cry production has been proposed which suggests that decreased vagal tone among infants at risk may, in fact, be related to these increases in cry pitch. Using routine, unanesthetized circumcision as a model of stress, we were able to examine the relation between cry acoustics and vagal tone in normal, healthy newborns undergoing an acutely stressful event. Vocalizations, heart, and respiratory waveforms were continuously recorded from 49 (32 experimental; 17 control) 1-2-day-old, full-term infants during preoperative, surgical, and postoperative periods. Vagal tone, as measured by the amplitude of respiratory sinus arrhythmia extracted from heart period data, was significantly reduced during the severe stress of circumcision, and these reductions were paralleled by significant increases in the pitch of the infants' cries. In addition, individual differences in vagal tone measured prior to circumcision surgery were predictive of physiological and acoustic reactivity to subsequent stress. These results emphasize the potential role of vagal control of the autonomic nervous system during stress.

Acoustics↗
PubMed1987

Developmental outcome prediction from acoustic cry analysis in term and preterm infants.

It has been suggested that the cry may reflect the neurophysiologic integrity of the infant and relate to later developmental outcome. In this study, the cry was recorded at term conceptional age in 18 preterm and 13 term infants using a standardized procedure and analyzed by high-speed computer. At 18 months of age, a significant number of infants were correctly classified as scoring high or low on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development based on the mean and variability in the fundamental frequency, variability in the first formant, and the amplitude of the cry. At 5 years of age, a significant number of infants were correctly classified on the McCarthy General Cognitive Index and on the verbal, perceptual-performance, and quantitative subscales based on the variability of the fundamental frequency, variability of the first formant, and amplitude and duration of the cry. Although preliminary, this study supports the potential use of the cry as a noninvasive measure to detect developmental outcome in the infant at risk.

Acoustics↗
PubMed1987

Infant temperament and subject loss due to crying during operant conditioning.

Infants who failed to complete a 2-day operant-conditioning task were compared with a stratified random sample of those who did on measures of infant temperament and several demographic characteristics. A discriminant-function analysis revealed that female infants who cried differed from female infants who did not cry on measures of duration of orienting and latency to approach sudden or novel stimuli. Reliable prediction of crying and noncrying could not, however, be made for males. No sex differences emerged in the incidence of crying or in the number of sessions completed. Partially successful females (i.e., those completing 1 of the 2 sessions) could reliably be discriminated from those who cried during the first session on measures of age at testing and maternal ratings of smiling behavior. The results of this study suggest that, as with habituation studies, subject loss in operant-conditioning studies is influenced by individual differences among the infants which may or may not adversely affect external validity.

Conditioning, Operant↗
PubMed1985

The effect of crying on long-term memory in infancy.

The influence of crying on infants' long-term memory for a learned response was investigated in 3 experiments. In each, infants were trained to move a crib mobile containing 10 identical objects by means of kicking and were then exposed to a reinforcer containing only 2 of these components. This shift in component numerosity produced crying in 53% of the infants. Infants who cried in response to the reward shift evidenced no retention of the contingency 1 week later (Experiment 1) but did have excellent retention at 1 day (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, a brief reactivation treatment alleviated forgetting at 3 weeks regardless of the presence of crying in response to the change in mobiles. An unexpected recency effect characterized the efficacy of the reactivation treatment. The results indicate that crying in response to the violation of a reward-expectation habit functions as an amnesic agent to produce accelerated forgetting.

Crying↗
PubMed1983

Cross-cultural differences in maternal perceptions of cries of low- and high-risk infants.

The tape-recorded cries of low- and high-risk newborn infants were rated by 150 inner-city Anglo-American, Black-American, and Cuban-American mothers during the hospital lying-in period following childbirth. Half of each cultural group was primiparous and half was multiparous. The mothers rated the cries along 4 perceptual and 6 caregiving response scale items. Reliable differences were found between low- and high-risk infant cries on all perceptual responses with the effects of culture and parental experience affecting the degree of differences. Generally, Anglo-American mothers found the cries more distressing, urgent, arousing, and sick sounding than Black-American mothers, while Cuban-American mothers showed similarities to both Black- and Anglo-American mothers depending on the scale items. The ratings on the caregiving response scale items paralleled cultural differences found on the perception scale items and previous reports of the mother-infant interaction patterns of other Anglo-, Black-, and Cuban-American samples. The results are discussed as being important in developing nonethnocentric views of the functional significance of the behaviors of the infant at risk, yet as providing evidence of the cross-cultural significance of the cry sound of the infant at risk.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1993

Randomized controlled trial of three interventions in the management of persistent crying of infancy.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of three methods in the management of infantile colic. METHODS: Healthy infants with persistent crying were randomly assigned to one of three groups for a 2-week period. All groups received an assessment and reassurance from a pediatrician and support from a public health nurse. Group 1 also received counseling regarding specific management techniques. Group 2 also received a car-ride simulation device. Group 3 acted as a control. Mothers completed crying diaries and preintervention and postintervention anxiety questionnaires. RESULTS: Thirty-eight mother-infant pairs were enrolled. Combining all three groups, there was a 24% reduction in daily hours of crying (P = .01) and a 18% improvement in maternal anxiety (P < .001), but no significant difference among groups. CONCLUSIONS: The natural history of persistent crying of infancy is improvement over time. These specific interventions proved no better than reassurance and support alone in decreasing daily hours of crying and maternal anxiety.

Anxiety↗
PubMed1993

Severe reactions associated with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine: detailed study of children with seizures, hypotonic-hyporesponsive episodes, high fevers, and persistent crying.

OBJECTIVE: The pathophysiology of severe reactions to diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP)vaccine is not well understood. Active pertussis toxin in DTP vaccine has been proposed to cause severe DTP vaccine reactions. Large doses of pertussis toxin cause hyperinsulinemia and hypoglycemia as well as leukocytosis with a predominant lymphocytosis in animal models. To learn more about the causes of and risk factors for severe DTP vaccine reactions, children experiencing severe DTP vaccine reactions were studied. DESIGN: Prospective, referral-based surveillance. SETTING: Los Angeles, CA. SUBJECTS: Children experiencing severe reactions within 48 hours of DTP immunization and evaluated within 24 hours of the reaction. Severe reactions included encephalopathy, persistent crying > or = 3 hours, hypotonic-hyporesponsive episodes (collapse episodes), fever > or = 40.5 degrees C, or seizures. Some comparisons were made between children with DTP vaccine-associated seizures and a comparison group of children experiencing febrile seizures unrelated to immunization. OUTCOME MEASURES: A history and physical examination were performed. Follow-up examinations were performed 1 month later. Blood was collected for complete blood cell count with leukocyte differential count, serum chemistry measurements, and insulin and glucose values. Serum was assayed for active pertussis toxin, both in free and immune-complex masked states. RESULTS: Sixty children experienced severe reactions within 48 hours of DTP immunization: 32 children had seizures only, 14 subjects had hypotonic-hyporesponsive episodes, 2 subjects had fever > or = 40.5 degrees C only, 4 subjects had persistent crying > or = 3 hours, 6 children had seizures and fever > or = 40.5 degrees C, and 2 children had persistent crying and seizures. The children with seizures had a high rate of personal and family histories of seizures, and 90% had documented fevers (> or = 38 degrees C). Persistent crying was associated with painful local reactions. Effects that may have been due to vaccine pertussis toxin were not found. Lymphocytosis did not occur, nor did hypoglycemia. Some relatively elevated insulin values were noted; however, this finding was also noted in the comparison group of children experiencing febrile seizures unrelated to immunization. No biologically active pertussis toxin was found in the acute sera of children experiencing severe DTP vaccine reactions. CONCLUSIONS: Seizures associated with DTP vaccine have similar clinical characteristics as febrile seizures, and persistent crying is initiated by painful local reactions. Vaccine endotoxin is a cause of febrile DTP vaccine reactions. We found no evidence that DTP vaccine pertussis toxin plays a role in severe DTP vaccine reactions.

Anaphylaxis↗
PubMed1996

Individual differences, daily fluctuations, and developmental changes in amounts of infant waking, fussing, crying, feeding, and sleeping.

Measures of the amounts of time infants spent asleep, awake-content, feeding, fussing, and crying at 2, 6, 12, and 40 weeks of age were examined using multilevel analysis. This method enables the proportion of the variance in each behavior due to individual differences to be compared to the proportion due to age changes (development) and to day-to-day fluctuations at each age in the same infants. Day-to-day fluctuations were found to account for the largest proportion of the variance in amounts of sleeping, fussing, and crying (between 44% and 53%), testifying to the importance of instability in these behaviors as a characteristic of infancy. Against this background, both development and individual differences explained substantial proportions of the variance, with a somewhat different picture in each area of behavior. Amounts of waking and feeding were mainly accounted for by development, and no evidence of enduring individual differences was found. For sleeping, development and individual difference each contributed approximately a quarter of the variance, and the amounts infants slept remained moderately stable from 6 weeks to 9 months of age. Crying decreased linearly with age, with development accounting for 38% and individual difference 15% of the variance. Fussing proved a more stable characteristic than crying, and "high fussers" at 6 weeks of age were particularly likely to retain this characteristic at 9 months, whereas amount of crying in the first 3 months did not predict 9-month behavior. The study's clinical, conceptual, and methodological implications are discussed.

Circadian Rhythm↗
PubMed1995

cry IA(b) transcript formation in tobacco is inefficient.

Chimaeric PCaMV35Scry genes direct in tobacco mesophyll protoplasts mRNA levels of less than one transcript per cell. We provide evidence that this low cytoplasmic cry IA(b) mRNA level is not due to a rapid turnover but rather results from a marginal import flow of cry messenger into the cytoplasm. Run-on assays indicate that the frequency of transcription initiation is not limiting. However, the cry precursor mRNA carries at least three regions that are recognized as introns. The absence of high cytoplasmic levels of spliced cry mRNAs suggests that these mRNAs are unstable and/or not efficiently made. Point mutations in the 5' splice site of the most distal intron allows high accumulation levels of the full-length mRNA. This implies that the inefficient formation of full-size mRNA is a major cause of the low expression level of chimaeric cry IA(b) genes in tobacco.

Bacillus thuringiensis Toxins↗
PubMed2004

Dissection of cry gene profiles of Bacillus thuringiensis isolates in Taiwan.

On the basis of the newly revised nomenclature system of cry genes, the PCR amplification method has been adopted to resolve the cry gene combinations of 294 Bacillus thuringiensis isolates from five selected areas of Taiwan. Our results indicate that cry1 (especially cry1A + 1B + 1F) and cry2 were the most abundant cry genes in Taiwan. In contrast, cry3 and cry6 genes were detected only on Yang Ming Mountain, while the cry13 gene was found only on Snow Mountain. In addition, some distinctive combinations of cry genes were detected in distinct areas of Taiwan, such as cry1C, cry1D, cry1C + 1D, cry4, cry1 + 4, cry1 + 11, cry4 + 11, and cry1 + 4 + 11 in the Taipei area; cry1A + 1C + 1F in the Taichung area; cry1E and cry1A + 1B + 1I on Yang Ming Mountain; cry1 + 13, cry1 + 2 + 11, and cry1 + 2 + 13 on Snow Mountain; and cry1 + 5 and cry1 + 2 + 5 on Jade Mountain. These data clearly indicate that the distribution of cry gene combinations of B. thuringiensis isolates seems to be geographically related.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Comparative study of the frequency, flagellar serotype, crystal shape, toxicity, and cry gene contents of Bacillus thuringiensisfrom three environments.

A number of Bacillus thuringiensis isolates from sericultural farm, soil, and granary samples in Korea were found. B. thuringiensis isolates were predominant in granary (40%), followed by sericultural farm (33% and 25% in the spring and fall isolation), and soil (10%). In toxicity tests for three areas, lepidopteran-active isolates were rich in the spring of sericultural farm and granary, but the fall isolation of sericultural farm displayed that a large number of B. thuringiensis isolates having dual specificity against both lepidopteran and dipteran larvae were found. The soil showed even distribution against lepidoptera and/or diptera. Most of B. thuringiensis isolates showed strong toxicity against tested insects. PCR analysis using cryI, cryII, cryIII, cryIV, and cryV gene-specific primers for determination of the cry gene contents of B. thuringiensis isolates indicated that the frequency of the cryIA, cryIC, cryID, and cryII among cry genes predominated, and the cryIB, cryIE, cryIF, cryIG, and cryIV were not popular. In contrast, no PCR products were detected for the cryIII and cryV templates. Several B. thuringiensis isolates produced unusual PCR products and complicated combinations consisting of multiple cry genes. Seven out of 11 B. thuringiensis isolates undetected by specific primers from sericultural farm, all out of 9 isolates from soil, and 19 out of 25 isolates from granary were toxic to lepidoptera and/or diptera. In addition, five nontoxic isolates of sericultural farm, all of five nontoxic isolates of soil, and 13 nontoxic isolates of granary produced the expected PCR products. PCR results showed varied distribution of cry genes for three areas, respectively. An evaluation of this novel activity demands that several criteria be measured: the frequency, flagellar serotype, crystal morphology, toxicity, and combination of the cry genes.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Association analysis between serotype, cry gene content, and toxicity to Helicoverpa armigera larvae among Bacillus thuringiensis isolates native to Spain.

Serotyping, cry gene content, and toxicity to Helicoverpa armigera were determined for 178 isolates of Bacillus thuringiensis native to Spain. A total of 13 different cry1 and cry2 genes were detected when isolates were screened by PCR analysis. Results showed that cry2 and cry1Ia were the most frequent cry genes in the collection (74 and 57%, respectively); whereas cry1D, cry1Aa, cry1Ab, and cry1C were only moderately abundant (49, 48, 47, and 36%, respectively). The most uncommon cry genes were cry1Ac, cry1E, cry1B, cry1Ib, cry1Ad, cry1F, and cry1G, with frequencies of 24, 14, 13, 8, 5, 5, and 1%, respectively. The distribution of some cry genes was somewhat associated with particular serovars. For example, genes cry1C and cry1D were especially frequent in the serovar aizawai, while cry1B was very frequent in the serovar thuringiensis. Bioassays against H. armigera larvae showed a wide variation in the insecticidal potency, even among strains sharing the same set of cry genes and within the same serotype.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Oral administration of a dominant T-cell determinant peptide inhibits allergen-specific TH1 and TH2 cell responses in Cry j 2-primed mice.

BACKGROUND: Oral immunotherapy with a peptide for allergic immune responses is theoretically a promising therapy but has not been established yet. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate immune suppressive efficacy of oral administration of an immunodominant peptide, we investigated changes in T-cell proliferation, TH1 - and TH2 -cytokine production, and TH1 - and TH2 -mediated antibody production in mice after oral administration of a peptide. METHODS: Peptide p246-259, containing a dominant T-cell determinant of Cry j 2, which is the major allergen in Japanese cedar pollen, was used in this study. Groups of mice received p246-259 or PBS alone before or after they were primed intranasally with Cry j 2 and cholera toxin. In another experiment mice were primed intraperitoneally with Cry j 2 and alum. Proliferative response and cytokine production by nasal-associated lymph node cells against Cry j 2 were investigated. Amounts of systemic anti-Cry j 2 IgE and IgG antibodies were also measured. RESULTS: Oral administration of the peptide to mice before, or even after, the sensitization induced oral tolerance in T-cell responses against the allergen; the tolerance was associated with decreased production of TH1 (IFN-gamma and IL-2) and TH2 (IL-4) cytokines. Allergen-specific TH1 -mediated (IgG2a and IgG2b) and TH2 -mediated (IgG1 and IgE) antibody responses were also inhibited. CONCLUSIONS: Oral administration of a dominant T-cell determinant peptide induces immunologic tolerance in both TH1 and TH2 cell responses against the whole protein allergen. Our study is the first, to our knowledge, to demonstrate the potential for peptide-based oral immunotherapy in order to treat allergic immune responses.

Administration, Intranasal↗
PubMed1998

CRY, a Drosophila clock and light-regulated cryptochrome, is a major contributor to circadian rhythm resetting and photosensitivity.

Light is a major environmental signal for circadian rhythms. We have identified and analyzed cry, a novel Drosophila cryptochrome gene. All characterized family members are directly photosensitive and include plant blue light photoreceptors. We show that cry transcription is under circadian regulation, influenced by the Drosophila clock genes period, timeless, Clock, and cycle. We also show that cry protein levels are dramatically affected by light exposure. Importantly, circadian photosensitivity is increased in a cry-overexpressing strain. These physiological and genetic data therefore link a specific photoreceptor molecule to circadian rhythmicity. Taken together with the data in the accompanying paper, we propose that CRY is a major Drosophila photoreceptor dedicated to the resetting of circadian rhythms.

ARNTL Transcription Factors↗
PubMed2002

Zebrafish CRY represses transcription mediated by CLOCK-BMAL heterodimer without inhibiting its binding to DNA.

BACKGROUND: CLOCK and BMAL1 proteins, members of the basic helix-loop-helix PAS (PER-ARNT-SIM) superfamily of transcription factors which bind to the E-box DNA motif, are required for the high-level expression of the circadian clock genes period (per) and cryptochrome (cry). CRY inhibits transcriptional activity of the CLOCK-BMAL1 heterodimer, generating a negative-feedback loop that is the core element of the circadian oscillator. RESULTS: We show that zebrafish CRY (zCRY1a) neither disrupts the association between zfCLOCK and zfBMAL nor inhibits binding of the zfCLOCK-zfBMAL heterodimer to an E-box-bearing DNA fragment. Instead it binds to the heterodimer to form a stable zCRY1a-zfCLOCK-zfBMAL-E-box complex. Another zebrafish CRY protein, zCRY4, does not have transcriptional inhibitor activity, whereas zCRY1a has strong activity. zCRY4 does not associate with zfCLOCK and zfBMAL. We also show that the presence of a chemical reductant in the reaction mixture is crucial for efficient binding of the CLOCK-BMAL heterodimer to E-box bearing DNA, which is indicative of the reduction/oxidation (redox)-sensitive character of the heterodimer. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that CRY represses CLOCK-BMAL-mediated transcription by interacting directly with the zfCLOCK-zfBMAL-E-box complex.

ARNTL Transcription Factors↗