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PubMed2003

[Xenotransplantation from a Christian-ethical perspective].

Xenotransplantation is a question of "ethics between man and animal". Because those affected in different ways by xenotransplantation (patients, relatives, medical doctors, laypeople) have different perceptions, "foreign" perspectives must be consciously considered next to one's own perspective in the ethical judgement. As xenotransplantation is still at the stage of preclinical research, this special opportunity for an early public ethical discussion should be taken. According to biblical teaching, man is responsible for his fellows before God, therefore every decision of a patient (or a doctor) in favour of a xenotransplantation made without consideration of the social environment or the society as a whole cannot be ethically justified. From the Jewish-Christian point of view, the "innate value of man's fellow creatures" should be considered. What happens to the animals used for research into transplantation may not simply "vanish" before the vision of a successful xenotransplantation. What man's responsibility to creatures should prevent commonly happens: animals are exploited as instruments or treated as objects to reach human goals, they are perceived only as their utility value. We humans, with God's biblical mandate for our fellow creatures, must remember that the unavoidable weighing up between the (proposed) welfare of man and the welfare of animals should not be decided to the detriment of the animals too easily. The effects of medical technological possibilities on the conception of man and on our value system show themselves in a special way in xenotransplantation. Are the hopes set in xenotransplantation an expression of a mechanistic understanding of the human body and a conception of man that blends out the mortality and imperfection of human life? Focussing on human-ethical aspects leads to the neglect of the animal-ethical aspects by some Protestant ethicists. However, it is necessary to forego at least extremely severe animal experiments and so also to do without the possible gain of knowledge, i.e. to consciously limit research interests for ethical reasons. The tendency towards the reduction of animal experiments should not be reverted by research into xenotransplantation. The ethical evaluation of xenotransplantation should also consider whether economic interests are placed above the welfare of humans and animals, thus supporting questionable research processes. Justice and partisanship for the disadvantaged is a central aspect of biblical tradition. The problem in deciding what is fair in xenotransplantation is multifaceted: How can fair allocation of organs be ensured when both animal and human organs are available at the same time? What effects will this medical technology have on the distribution of the (limited) resources on the national health system? And finally: can such a cost-intensive technology helping only a few be justified in the light of the lack of basic medical care in the poor regions of the earth? A technology which many experts warn will result in the opposite of the original goal, i.e. reduction of the lack of organs.

Animal Experimentation↗
PubMed2003

[The haematogenous reproduction theory of Aristotle].

From the very beginning, man has been fascinated by the continuous coming into being of new life on Earth. Archeological and anthropological data indicate that in prehistoric times, reproduction was attributed to a fertility goddess that required no sperm for this purpose. In the early historical Middle East it was believed that a godly being brought about pregnancy by using male and female semen. It was the merit of the Greek philosophers of the 6th-3rd century B.C. to realize that reproduction was governed by natural laws. Several theories were developed to understand how reproduction could occur. The haematogenous theory of reproduction, developed by Aristotle, has received the most attention. The essence of this theory is that the male sperm, with a haematogenous origin, causes the development of an embryo from menstrual blood present in the female uterus. The theory survived about 2000 years, with modifications, and was also introduced into Christianity. It was only about 150 years ago that the reproduction theory based on hypotheses was changed into a reproduction science based on facts.

Famous Persons↗
PubMed1997

Diseases in the Byzantine world with special emphasis on the nephropathies.

Using medical manuscripts and texts from the Byzantine period (330-1453), this article describes various, to date little discussed, aspects of Byzantine nosology, public health and therapeutics. Many diseases in the Byzantine era were widespread and had a high morbidity such as respiratory disease, various kinds of anaemia, pestilential diseases (e.g. quartan fever, plague, dysentery and cholera), parasitic diseases, orthopaedic, rheumatic and psychiatric disorders, trachoma and alcoholism. Other very serious and relatively frequent conditions included leprosy, mania, gout, cancerous tumours and ulcers. Important elements of nephrology and various renal diseases were described and investigated, such as acute and chronic renal failure, acute and chronic nephritis, pyelonephritis, necrotic renal diseases, crush syndrome, and ulcers of the kidneys, i.e. tuberculosis or renal tumours. The microhistology and physiology of the kidneys were first studied by Oribasius, who discerned the existence of the capillaries--tau rho iota chi omicron epsilon iota delta eta--some centuries before Malpighi. He also correctly described the blood circulation, general and pulmonary, as a precursor to Harvey. The first hospitals were organised during the Byzantine period, and the practice of Byzantine medical science and its social applications were regulated by a special medical legislation and deontology. Byzantine medicine was fruitfully connected with the Christian faith and developed the supreme model of the saints unmercenary--alpha nu alpha rho gamma epsilon rho omicron iota--physicians such as Cosmas and Damian (3rd century), Panteleemon (3rd-4th centuries) and the women physicians and miracle-worker saints, Zenais and Philonilla (1st century), the 'friends of peace', and Hermione (1st-2nd centuries).

Byzantium↗
PubMed1999

[Hippocratic philosophy].

The art of medicine was formed in Greece in close relationship to culture and philosophy. During the Christian era, it was projected through the Corpus Hippocraticus, in several ethical and philosophical documents such as The Oath of Medical Science, Medical Law, Decency, Precepts, Antique Medicine, Airs and Aphorisms, Waters and places. The central idea of Hippocratic philosophy is the principle of wholeness, summarized by Plato in the sentence "The certain knowledge of nature is solely possible from medicine and only when it is correctly approached as a whole". Clinical actions, are imbued by Hippocratic ethics; their aim is the ill that is an anthropos, a human being. The physician must take care of the ill with devotion, selflessness, comprehension and compassion. The oath is the supreme deontological code that summarizes the essential concepts of Hippocratic philosophy. Recent studies suggest that there is a great distance between the thinking of Hippocrates and present scientific medicine. Hippocratic philosophy rejects the epistemological principles of modern science. The Hippocratic logic is probabilistic and temporal and rejects the principles of noncontradiction, of identity and therefore the abstract determinism of contemporary science. The present force of the oath is explained because its ethics and epistemology are matters of medicine that understands the real world of the ill, trying to avoid suffering and injustice. Only Hippocrates can defend each ill as a whole with the wisdom of its philosophy.

Hippocratic Oath↗
PubMed1992

Lose weight and win: a church-based weight loss program for blood pressure control among black women.

The Baltimore Church High Blood Pressure Program (CHBPP) offers a behaviorally oriented weight control program consisting of eight weekly 2-h diet counseling/exercise sessions. Pre- and post-program weight and blood pressure measurements were analyzed for 184 black and 3 white women aged 18-81 years (mean 51) who participated in the program in 1984-1986: 88 were taking antihypertensive medication (Rx) and 99 were not (no Rx). Mean weight loss was 6 lb in both groups: -18 to +7 lb in the Rx group and -31 to +3 lb in the no Rx group. The mean systolic/diastolic blood pressure (SBP/DBP) decrease was 10/6 mmHg in the Rx group and 5/3 mmHg in the no Rx group (P < 0.001 for all pre/post comparisons). Final SBP was < 140 mmHg for 74% of participants, versus 52% initially. Final DBP was < 90 mmHg in 92% versus 65% initially. Supporting the inference that BP decreases among weight control program participants reflect program effects, percent changes in SBP and DBP (week 2 to week 8) were significantly correlated with percent change in weight (rs = 0.23-0.36; P < 0.05). Comparison data for 25 women from the CHBPP population showed a mean SBP/DBP increase of 8/2 mmHg over an 8-week interval. Based on follow up measurements 6 months after the end of the 8-week program for 74 of the 187 women, weight lost during the 8-week program was maintained or exceeded by 65%. Net weight change at 8 months from baseline for women in the follow up subsample ranged from -28 to +4 lb; mean (SD) -6 (7) lb. Weight loss and related dietary or behavioral changes resulting from participation in a weight control program can enhance blood pressure control among black women.

Adult↗