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PubMed1988

An experimental test of risk compensation: between-subject versus within-subject analyses.

This study examined parameters under which risk compensation in driving can occur following the use of safety belts. Risk compensation theories hypothesize that if individuals use safety belts, they will drive in a more risky manner than if they do not use safety belts due to an increased perception of safety. Although the existence of risk compensation in driving has been debated in the literature for many years, the current study was the first experimental analysis of this theory that permitted a controlled examination of both between-subject and within-subject effects. This study required subjects to drive a 5-hp. go-kart around an oval track either buckled or unbuckled in the first of two phases of 15 driving trials. After the first phase the safety condition was switched for half the subjects (i.e., the safety belt was removed from subjects using it or was used by subjects who previously did not use it). Dependent measures included latency for each lap, deviations from the prescribed lane, and perceived safety while driving. The amount of time it took for subjects to travel to the go-kart track and their safety belt use during that trip was also measured. Risk compensation theory was not supported in the between-subject analyses of the research data; however, some within-subject comparisons did demonstrate risk compensation. Subjects who switched from not using the safety belt to using it increased driving speed during the second phase significantly more than subjects who used the safety belt during both driving phases. The study suggested that the occurrence of risk compensation is dependent upon individuals being able to compare the sensations using a safety belt with those of not using a safety belt. Risk compensation did not manifest itself in between-subject studies because this comparison could not take place. The implications of this study to driving automobiles on multi-user roadways is discussed. Suggestions for research to further expand the knowledge about how and when risk compensation occurs are also provided.

Acceleration↗
PubMed1989

Anthropomorphic dummy neck modeling and injury considerations.

This study investigates the modeling of the Hybrid III dummy head and neck system and its response under impulsive loading. Two neck models were proposed, one rigid, one flexible; both give satisfactory head kinematics upon comparing to minisled test results. The flexible neck model provides a more detailed understanding of the Hybrid III neck structure behavior. It indicates that the Hybrid III neck has a torque response similar to a human neck but has higher shear response. During flexion whiplash, the torque at the occipital condyle reverses its direction at about 25 ms after impact. Since concussion may be related to the head angular acceleration, which reaches its peak value in the first 25 ms, it might be necessary to extend the existing human torque-rotation corridor to include the neck response in this region. For flexion whiplash impact, simulation results indicated that the neck injury threshold is reached before exceeding the head injury threshold as the impact velocity is increased.

Acceleration↗
PubMed1992

Are radar detector users less safe than nonusers?

One hundred and seventy-four drivers who had purchased special insurance coverage during 1988-1989 for in-vehicle equipment that included a radar detector were compared to a similarly sized and sociodemographically stratified driver population random sample. It was found that the radar detector owners had significantly more accident claims and speeding convictions during the period 1986-1989 than those representing the general driver population.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed1994

Driver experience with antilock brake systems.

Antilock brakes provide the capability for shorter stopping distances and the ability to steer and maintain control during hard braking, especially on wet and slippery surfaces. Owners of late model cars equipped with antilock brakes were surveyed in North Carolina and Wisconsin regarding their experiences with antilocks. The survey results indicated that more than 50% of the drivers in North Carolina and 40% in Wisconsin incorrectly indicated how to brake a car in an emergency situations on wet and slippery pavements in a way that will effectively activate the antilock feature. More drivers in Wisconsin than in North Carolina reported that their cars' antilock feature had been used, but more than 33% of the Wisconsin drivers and 62% of North Carolina drivers said they had never used the antilock feature of their cars' brakes.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed1992

Maxillofacial injuries following steering wheel contact by drivers using seat belts.

Maxillofacial injuries are common sequelae in road traffic accidents. For the restrained driver, impact against the steering wheel is the most prevalent cause of injury. A sample of drivers restrained by seat belts with facial injury caused by the steering wheel was taken from data at the Accident Research Unit, University of Birmingham, UK. Two hundred and forty facial injuries occurred in 135 drivers, and these are described. Superficial contusion, laceration and nasal fractures predominated. There were 504 injuries at other body regions, and these were often caused by other vehicle components. These were, for 57% of drivers, no more serious than the facial injury caused by steering wheel contact. The role of steering wheel design in maxillofacial trauma is discussed and new solutions briefly reviewed.

Abbreviated Injury Scale↗
PubMed2004

Vehicle speed affects both pre-skid braking kinematics and average tire/roadway friction.

Vehicles decelerate between brake application and skid onset. To better estimate a vehicle's speed and position at brake application, we investigated how vehicle deceleration varied with initial speed during both the pre-skid and skidding intervals on dry asphalt. Skid-to-stop tests were performed from four initial speeds (20, 40, 60, and 80 km/h) using three different grades of tire (economy, touring, and performance) on a single vehicle and a single road surface. Average skidding friction was found to vary with initial speed and tire type. The post-brake/pre-skid speed loss, elapsed time, distance travelled, and effective friction were found to vary with initial speed. Based on these data, a method using skid mark length to predict vehicle speed and position at brake application rather than skid onset was shown to improve estimates of initial vehicle speed by up to 10 km/h and estimates of vehicle position at brake application by up to 8 m compared to conventional methods that ignore the post-brake/pre-skid interval.

Automobile Driving↗
PubMed2004

Modeling of relative collision safety including driver characteristics.

We propose a new mathematical model for relative collision safety in cars. Our present research is restricted to head-on crashes between two cars and we try to determine how much of the injury risk in a crash depends on the car make. Previous work shows that a person's age and sex influence the injury risk in accidents that are otherwise similar. To explore the relative risks between different car makes we build a model where we let the car mass, change of speed, design of the car and the driver's age and sex explain the injury outcome in the crashes. The mathematical model we use is a birth process where the states correspond to the injury classes. A database containing police reported traffic accidents and hospital information is used to explore the relationships in our model. Different models are compared and the "best" model is chosen by a likelihood ratio test. The estimated relative risks compensated for the driver's age and sex are compared to the relative risks with the driver population included. The uncertainties of the different estimates are studied by a bootstrap analysis.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2005

The world's first automobile fatality.

The first recorded automobile fatality occurred in a small town in the Irish Midlands in 1869. Mary Ward, a celebrated microscopist, artist, astronomer and naturalist, fell from a steam carriage and died after crush injuries from its heavy iron wheels. The story of first automobile fatality characterizes the individual tragedy that is each premature death. It also illuminates the story of a remarkable Victorian scientific family. Among their many achievements was the building of a reflector telescope in the heart of rural Ireland that was the largest in the world for 74 years.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2005

Is electronic stability program effective on French roads?

This paper proposes an evaluation of the effectiveness of the electronic stability program (ESP) in terms of reduction of injury accidents in France. The method consists of 3 steps: The identification, in the French National injury accident census, of accident-involved cars for which the determination of whether or not the car was fitted with ESP is possible. A sampler of 136 cars involved in injury accidents occurred in 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003 was then selected. But we had to restrict the analysis to only 588 Renalut Laguna's. The identification of accident situations for which we can determine whether or not ESP is pertinent ( for example ESP is pertinent for loss of control accidents whilst it is not for cars pulling out of a junction). The calculation, via a logistic regression, of the relative risk of being involved in an ESP-pertinent accident for ESP equipped cars versus unequipped cars, divided by the relative risk of being involved in a non-ESP-pertinent accident for ESP equipped cars versus unequipped cars. This relative risk is assumed to be the best estimator of ESP effectiveness. The arguments for such a method, effectiveness indicator and implicit hypothesis are presented and discussed in the paper. Based on a few assumptions, ESP is proved to be likely effective. Currently, the relative risk of being involved in an ESP-pertinent accident for ESP-equipped cars is lower (-44%, although not statistically significant) than for other cars.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2006

Segment characteristics and severity of head-on crashes on two-lane rural highways in Maine.

More than two out of three of all fatal crashes in Maine occur on rural, two-lane collector or arterial roads. Head-on crashes on these roads account for less than 5% of the crashes, but they are responsible for almost half of all fatalities. Data analyzed in this study was provided by Maine Department of Transportation and covers all head-on crashes for 2000-2002 during which period there were 3,136 head-on crashes reported. Out of these, 127 were fatal crashes and 235 produced incapacitating but not fatal injuries. These two categories made up over 75% of the crash cost. A clear majority of head-on crashes on two-lane, rural roads in Maine were caused by drivers making errors or misjudging situations. Illegal/unsafe speed was a factor in 32% of the crashes while driver inattention/distraction was a primary factor in 28%. Fatigue was responsible for around one in 40 crashes and one in 12 fatal crashes. Alcohol or drugs was a factor in one in 12 crashes and one in nine fatal head-on crashes. Less than 8% of fatalities involved someone overtaking another vehicle, and only around 14% involved a driver intentionally crossing the centerline. Two in three fatal head-on crashes occurred on straight segments and 67% of these happened on dry pavement. There is a clear trend towards higher speed limits leading to a higher percentage of crashes becoming fatal or having incapacitating injuries. There is also a clear trend - if one keeps speeds constant and AADT within a certain range - that wider shoulders give higher crash severities. Also, for higher-speed roads, more travel lanes (than two) increase crash severity. In summary, there seems to be two major reasons why people get across the centerline and have head-on collisions: (a) people are going too fast for the roadway conditions; or (b) people are inattentive and get across the centerline more or less without noticing it. The latter category of crashes could probably be reduced if centerline rumble-strips were installed. More or less all head-on collisions could be eliminated if median barriers were installed. In-vehicle technology could also be used to significantly reduce the incidence of lane departures. Furthermore, today's speed limits should be better enforced since a high percentage of serious crashes involve illegal speeding. This should be combined with lowered speed limits for targeted high-crash segments.

Accident Prevention↗
PubMed2006

Influence of visibility out of the vehicle cabin on lane-change crashes.

The influence of lateral visibility from the vehicle cabin on safety was evaluated by examining the differences in lane-change crashes of four-door and two-door body styles of the same vehicle models. These two vehicle styles were used because B-pillars (the pillars between the front and rear seats) on four-door models are farther forward, and thus nearer the fore-aft position of the driver. (Furthermore, the B-pillars on two-door models can be narrower, and some two-door models have no B-pillars at all.) To control for driver differences between these two body styles, going-straight-ahead crashes were used for comparison. The analysis used 2000-2003 North Carolina crash data, and considered the crash experience of four-door and two-door body styles for the same 10 vehicles for model years 1995 and newer. The main finding is that four-door body styles are more likely to be involved in lane-change crashes than are two-door body styles of the same vehicle models. This finding suggests that lateral visibility out of the vehicle cabin affects safety.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2006

On the nature of over-dispersion in motor vehicle crash prediction models.

Statistical modeling of traffic crashes has been of interest to researchers for decades. Over the most recent decade many crash models have accounted for extra-variation in crash counts--variation over and above that accounted for by the Poisson density. The extra--variation--or dispersion--is theorized to capture unaccounted for variation in crashes across sites. The majority of studies have assumed fixed dispersion parameters in over-dispersed crash models--tantamount to assuming that unaccounted for variation is proportional to the expected crash count. Miaou and Lord [Miaou, S.P., Lord, D., 2003. Modeling traffic crash-flow relationships for intersections: dispersion parameter, functional form, and Bayes versus empirical Bayes methods. Transport. Res. Rec. 1840, 31-40] challenged the fixed dispersion parameter assumption, and examined various dispersion parameter relationships when modeling urban signalized intersection accidents in Toronto. They suggested that further work is needed to determine the appropriateness of the findings for rural as well as other intersection types, to corroborate their findings, and to explore alternative dispersion functions. This study builds upon the work of Miaou and Lord, with exploration of additional dispersion functions, the use of an independent data set, and presents an opportunity to corroborate their findings. Data from Georgia are used in this study. A Bayesian modeling approach with non-informative priors is adopted, using sampling-based estimation via Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) and the Gibbs sampler. A total of eight model specifications were developed; four of them employed traffic flows as explanatory factors in mean structure while the remainder of them included geometric factors in addition to major and minor road traffic flows. The models were compared and contrasted using the significance of coefficients, standard deviance, chi-square goodness-of-fit, and deviance information criteria (DIC) statistics. The findings indicate that the modeling of the dispersion parameter, which essentially explains the extra-variance structure, depends greatly on how the mean structure is modeled. In the presence of a well-defined mean function, the extra-variance structure generally becomes insignificant, i.e. the variance structure is a simple function of the mean. It appears that extra-variation is a function of covariates when the mean structure (expected crash count) is poorly specified and suffers from omitted variables. In contrast, when sufficient explanatory variables are used to model the mean (expected crash count), extra-Poisson variation is not significantly related to these variables. If these results are generalizable, they suggest that model specification may be improved by testing extra-variation functions for significance. They also suggest that known influences of expected crash counts are likely to be different than factors that might help to explain unaccounted for variation in crashes across sites.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2006

Economic development's effect on road transport-related mortality among different types of road users: a cross-sectional international study.

The relationship between a country's stage of economic development and its motor vehicle crash (MVC) mortality rate is not defined for different road users. This paper presents a cross-sectional regression analysis of recent national mortality in 44 countries using death certificate data provided by the World Health Organization. For five types of road users, MVC mortality is expressed as deaths per 100,000 people and per 1000 motor vehicles. Economic development is measured as gross national income (GNI) per capita in U.S. dollars and as motor vehicles per 1000 people. Results showed overall MVC mortality peaked among low-income countries at about US$ 2000 GNI per capita and at about 100 motor vehicles per 1000 people. Overall mortality declined at higher national incomes up to about US$ 24,000. Most changes in MVC mortality associated with economic development were explained by changes in rates among nonmotorized travelers, especially pedestrians. Overall MVC rates were lowest when pedestrian exposure was low because there were few motor vehicles or few pedestrians, and were highest during a critical transition to motorized travel, when many pedestrians and other vulnerable road users vied for use of the roadways with many motor vehicles.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2005

The impact of subclinical epileptiform discharges on complex tasks and cognition: relevance for aircrew and air traffic controllers.

Subtle seizures consisting of brief alteration of consciousness with or without automatisms may go unnoticed in daily life, but can be detected more easily with electroencephalographic (EEG)/video recordings. Generalized and partial epileptiform EEG discharges can nevertheless be subclinical (subclinical epileptiform discharges, SEDs). When appropriate complex tasks are presented, it has been shown that even very short SEDs of 0.5 second disrupt cognition. In daily life this has been shown during automobile driving: half of the subjects showed significant deviations in lateral position of the car during SEDs and made more errors in an attention task while driving. Individual differences in the cognitive effects of SEDs are, however, striking and may be partly due to interaction between level of performance and frequency of spontaneous EEG discharges, as has been shown in another driving study: about 75% of subjects showed suppression of SEDs by driving, which is a combination of sensory, mental, and motor activity. Not only can SEDs negatively influence performance, but in some cases mental activities can provoke epileptiform discharges. It is important to realize that these mechanisms exist and that only detailed EEG studies can clarify these issues. In air traffic controllers, brief alterations of consciousness and cognitive impairment have occurred but cannot be accepted for safety reasons; therefore, Eurocontrol has used the EEG as a screening tool since 1995.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2002

The independent contribution of driver, crash, and vehicle characteristics to driver fatalities.

Several driver, crash, and vehicle characteristics may affect the fatality risk of drivers involved in crashes. To determine the independent contribution of these variables to drivers' fatality risk, we used data from single-vehicle crashes with fixed objects contained in the US Fatal Accident Reporting System. A multivariate logistic regression revealed that the odds ratio (OR) of a fatal injury increased with age, reaching 4.98 (99% confidence interval (CI) = 2.01-12.37) for drivers aged 80 + compared with drivers aged 40-49 years. Female gender (OR = 1.54, 99% CI = 1.35-1.76) and blood alcohol concentration greater than 0.30 (OR = 3.16. 99% CI = 1.96-5.09) were also associated with higher fatality odds. In comparison with front impacts, driver-side impacts doubled the odds of a fatality (OR = 2.26, 99% CI = 1.92-2.65), and speeds in excess of 111 kilometers per hour (kph: 69 mph) prior to or at impact were related to higher fatality odds (OR = 2.64, 99% CI = 1.82-3.83) compared with speeds of less than 56 kph (35 mph). Three-point seatbelts were protective against fatal injuries (OR = 0.46, 99% CI = 0.39-0.53 compared with no belt). These data suggest that increasing seatbelt use, reducing speed, and reducing the number and severity of driver-side impacts may prevent fatalities. The importance of age and gender suggests that the specific safety needs of older drivers and female drivers may need to be addressed separately from those of men and younger drivers.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed2002

Traffic safety and the switch to a primary seat belt law: the California experience.

This study explores whether the change of an existing seat belt law from secondary to primary enforcement enhances traffic safety. In particular, we examine traffic fatalities and injuries in California from 1988 to 1997. During the first half of this period, California law provided for secondary enforcement of its mandatory seat belt law, but in 1993 it upgraded the law to primary enforcement. Controlling for the number of motor vehicle collisions, a Box-Tiao intervention analysis of the time series is used to compare the monthly fatalities and injuries before and after the change in the enforcement provision. The results show that California experienced an improvement in traffic safety in terms of a significant reduction in injuries, but the change in enforcement provision had no statistically significant impact on fatalities.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed1997

The effectiveness of side marker lamps: an experimental study.

The present experiment investigated the effect of small amber lamps mounted near the front and rear on each side of a passenger car-so called side marker lamps-on visual detection and recognition of passenger cars in complex nighttime environments. It was determined whether cars equipped with side marker lamps are detected and recognized earlier and more accurately than cars without side marker lamps. Subjects were presented with slides of natural nighttime scenes in which a car, either with or without side marker lamps, viewed from its side, approaching from a side street, was either present or not. Subjects determined as fast as possible whether a car was present or not. Reaction time measures (speed and accuracy) indicated that both under clear and fog visibility conditions, a car equipped with side marker lamps was detected and recognized earlier and more accurately than a car without side marker lamps. The results indicate that side marker lamps increase both lateral conspicuity and recognizability suggesting that side marker lamps may be effective in reducing the number of nighttime angle collisions.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMed1998

Changes in the legislation on the use of daytime running lights by motor vehicles and their effect on road safety in Hungary.

As of 1 March 1993, a partial (relating only to semi-motorways and main roads), and as of 1 June 1994, a total (relating to all roads) legal obligation to use DRL came into force outside built-up areas in Hungary. This paper examines the effectiveness of this regulation as an accident countermeasure. In view of the fact that it became possible to use one part of the road network as a comparison group during the period of partial obligation, a comparison group investigation has been carried out in addition to the analysis based on the odds ratio method familiar from earlier studies. The different methods provided different results, the probable causes of which are discussed in the present study. The result of the comparison group analysis are consistent not only with the hypothesis that DRL reduces certain types of collisions, but also with the results of a meta-analysis of 17 studies that have evaluated the effects on accidents of using DRL on cars. By using this method, it was possible to detect in the experimental group a 13.0% reduction in the number of frontal and 'crossing' vehicle collisions in daylight, in good visibility conditions, during the after period. The number of frontal and crossing collisions decreased without a simultaneous increase in rear-end collisions: the number of the latter has not significantly changed. Thus, the hypothesis that it is more reliable to estimate the collision-reducing effect of DRL on the basis of accidents only occurring in good visibility conditions, rather than on the basis of the total number of daylight accidents, has been justified by this study. The causes of this, as well as the difficulties and confounding factors arising when the odds ratio method is used, are dealt with in this work. By analyzing over a longer time series, it was possible to verify that the positive road safety effect is not a mere novelty effect, and is not simply due to the 'regression to the mean'.

Accident Prevention↗