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PubMed1993

Microbiological quality of recreational waters in Araraquara, SP, Brazil.

The microbiological flora of 108 water samples was explored to evaluate the role of recreational waters as a possible source of human diseases in Araraquara, S.P., Brazil. These waters included six swimming pools and three lakes with beaches. The number of total and fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, fecal streptococci, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and heterotrophic organisms was determined. As was the occurrence of Salmonella, Shigella, yersinia, enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC), Mycobacteria, yeasts in general and dermatophytes. Shigella, Yersinia, EIEC and dermatophytes were not isolated. Other organisms or groups of microorganisms were found in variable proportions. From this study it is concluded that recreational waters used by the population of Araraquara, may be contaminated with potentially pathogenic microorganism and this may serve as a source of human diseases.

Brazil↗
PubMed1984

The dangers of ill-health through recreation.

Healthy recreation for adolescents is discussed in its physical, psychological, educational and social dimensions. The medical and psychological dangers, in many current practices, are highlighted. Contemporary changes that have occurred in conceptions of pleasure and recreation are examined and the emerging evidence of the hazards involved is emphasised. Proposals for the prevention of these hazards to health are made.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Long-term stability of decontamination effect in recreational areas near the town Novozybkov, Bryansk Region, Russia.

In 1995 and 1997, experimental decontamination campaigns were carried out in two recreational areas, Novie Bobovichi and Guta-Muravinka, near the town of Novozybkov, Bryansk Region, Russia. These areas were strongly affected by the Chernobyl fallout in 1986. In order to examine the long-term stability of the clean-up procedures, a programme has been carried out to continuously monitor the radiological situation in and around the decontaminated areas. This follow-up program consists of regular (1-3 times per year) measurements of absorbed gamma-dose rate in air (DR) at reference indoor and outdoor locations, repeated DR measurements on a grid, and gamma-spectrometric analysis of soil and other environmental samples. Very similar dynamics of the Chernobyl-related DR, mostly attributed to radiocaesium decay, were found in all the locations. For the period under study (September 1995-May 2003), the half-lives (years) for the reduction in radiocaesium-dependent DR contribution due to contaminant migration (in the following termed 'DRM half-lives') were, respectively, 52+/-26, 57+/-23, 43+/-21, 46+/-15, and 80+/-56 for the following locations: untreated outdoors, treated outdoors, untreated indoors, treated indoors, and undisturbed forest-grassland plots outside the recreational areas. These relatively high values of the current DRM half-lives correspond very well with the results of soil core analyses, which showed no time-dependent changes in the mean mass depths of the (137)Cs distribution, neither at treated nor at undisturbed plots. The following signs of natural restoration of the disturbed forest-meadow ecosystems have been observed at treated areas: formation of a new litter layer, development of grassy spots, mushroom growths and new generations of pines and birches. The levels of the (137)Cs content in grass and mushrooms from treated plots were one or two orders of magnitude lower, than those registered in the samples from untreated areas. The follow-up study demonstrates the long-term stability and efficiency of the decontamination carried out. There are two main reasons for the sustainment of the effects: careful implementation of adequate clean-up procedures and natural strong fixation of radiocaesium in soil-associated matrices of the ecosystems.

Agaricales↗
PubMed2004

Investigation of recreational boats as a source of copper at anchorage sites using time-integrated diffusive gradients in thin film and sediment measurements.

Antifouling paints on small to medium recreational vessels were first recognized as an important source of pollution in the 1970s. One of the principle biocides in these paints is Cu. Results from a field program in the Gold Coast Broadwater, Queensland, demonstrate a clear correlation between recreational boat numbers at anchorage sites and water column Cu concentrations, for both time-integrated 24 h DGT measurements (n=14, r=0.815, p<0.001) and measurements on composite 0.45 mum-filtered grab samples (n=14, r=0.698, p<0.01) collected every 4 h over 24 h. At boat numbers above 30 the 0.45 microm-filterable Cu concentrations were mostly above the relevant guideline value (1.3 microgl(-1)) but the DGT-reactive Cu concentrations were well below this value at all boat numbers studied. For three-day DGT deployments in Moreton Bay, Queensland, correlations between Cu levels and vessel numbers were not observed, possibly because of uncertain estimates of boat numbers. However, using a multi-factorial ANOVA, DGT-reactive Cu concentrations showed a significant effect for 'sites with vessels vs. sites without vessels' (alpha=0.10, p=0.077) and for 'sampling period' (non-holiday weekdays, weekends, holiday weekdays, holiday weekends) at alpha=0.10, p=0.02. Cu levels in sediments at the same sites were strongly influenced by fraction of clay (<63 microm) material but also by whether the samples were collected at an anchorage or control site. Results from this study further support the view that Cu emissions from antifouling paints may become an important source in waters with high boat numbers and should be taken into account when designing management instruments for coastal waterways.

Copper↗
PubMed2004

Decay of intestinal enterococci concentrations in high-energy estuarine and coastal waters: towards real-time T90 values for modelling faecal indicators in recreational waters.

Intestinal enterococci are the principal 'health-evidence-based' parameter recommended by WHO for the assessment of marine recreational water compliance. Understanding the survival characteristics of these organisms in nearshore waters is central to public health protection using robust modelling to effect real-time prediction of water quality at recreation sites as recently suggested by WHO and the Commission of the European Communities Previous models have more often focused on the coliform parameters and assumed two static day-time and night-time T90 values to characterise the decay process. The principal driver for enterococci survival is the received dose of irradiance from sunlight. In the water column, transmission of irradiance is determined by turbidity produced by suspended material. This paper reports the results of irradiated microcosm experiments using simulated sunlight to investigate the decay of intestinal enterococci in relatively turbid estuarine and coastal waters collected from the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel, UK. High-turbidity estuarine waters produced a T90 value of 39.5 h. Low-turbidity coastal waters produced a much shorter T90 value of 6.6 h. In experiments receiving no irradiation, high-turbidity estuarine waters also produced a longer T90 of 65.1 h compared with corresponding low-turbidity coastal waters, T90 24.8 h. Irradiated T90 values were correlated with salinity, turbidity and suspended solids (r>0.8, p<0.001). The results suggest that enterococci decay in irradiated experiments with turbidity >200 NTU is similar to decay observed under dark conditions. Most significantly, these results suggest that modelling turbidity and or suspended solids offers a potential means of predicting T90 values in 'real-time' for discrete cells of a hydrodynamic model.

Dose-Response Relationship, Radiation↗
PubMed2005

Comment on "Derivation of numerical values for the World Health Organization guidelines for recreational waters".

The subject paper describes a procedure for adjusting a risk model based upon a measure of personal exposure (the "UK personal exposure model") in order to attribute an expected rate of gastroenteritis among a group of swimmers to a mean recreational water quality value (enterococci per 100mL). We term the resulting model for group risk the "UK ecologic exposure model." The distinction is essential to establishing recreational water quality guidelines because exposures of individual bathers are not known from a water monitoring program, the only assessment available being some form of ecologic exposure such as a mean log indicator density. While the authors of the subject paper solved the UK ecologic exposure model for only a single point (that value of mean log10 enterococcus density which is expected to result in five extra cases of gastroenteritis per 100 swimmers), we extend their model to show the entire curve over a relevant range of densities. The resulting exposure-response curve is seen to not differ substantially from the existing USEPA model for "highly credible gastrointestinal illness" in marine waters. However, particularly since such correspondence is not guaranteed for future studies or for other existing epidemiological studies, we recommend the direct approach to evaluating ecologic exposure, such as used in the USEPA studies, rather than the indirect approach of the UK ecologic exposure model, given the number of untested assumptions that are necessary for accomplishing the latter.

Ecology↗
PubMed2006

Processes driving the episodic flux of faecal indicator organisms in streams impacting on recreational and shellfish harvesting waters.

Understanding the process controls on episodic fluxes of faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) is becoming increasingly important for the sustainable management and accurate modelling of water quality in both recreational and shellfish harvesting waters. Both environments exhibit transitory non-compliance with microbiological standards after rainfall episodes despite significant expenditures on control of sewage derived pollutant loadings in recent years. This paper demonstrates the role of wave propagation in the entrainment of FIOs from river channel beds as a contributor to episodes of poor microbial water quality. Previously reported data is reviewed in the light of relationships between wave and mean water travel velocities. High flows and rapid changes in river flow, driven by releases of bacterially pure reservoir water, resulted in elevated FIO concentrations and transient peaks in concentration. The new interpretation of these data suggest three modes of entrainment: (i) immediate wave-front disturbance, (ii) wave propagation lift and post-wave transport at mean flow velocity, and (iii) stochastic erosional mechanisms that maintain elevated bacterial concentrations under steady high flow conditions. This is a significant advance on the previously proposed mechanisms. Understanding these mechanisms provides an aid to managing streams intended for recreational use and emphasises the need to control the timing of high flow generation prior to use of the water body for e.g. canoeing events. In addition the processes highlighted have relevance for the protection of shellfish nurseries, drinking water supply intakes and episodes of poor bathing water quality, and associated health risks.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Legionella prevalence in hot spring recreation areas of Taiwan.

Legionella is a bacterium ubiquitous to aquatic environments. Within the genus a few species are recognized as opportunistic potential human pathogens, especially the species Legionella pneumophila, which causes pneumonia legionellosis. Outbreaks of legionellosis are frequently reported by hotel guests and hospital patients, and are spread through inhaled aerosols of contaminated institutional water systems. Contaminations in hot tubs, spas and public baths are also possible. As a result, in this study, we investigated the distribution of Legionella at seven hot spring recreational areas throughout Taiwan. We gathered data on factors potentially associated with the pathogen's distribution, including environment, facility operation, and physical and microbiological water quality parameters. Spring water was collected from 91 sites and Legionella was detected in 21 (23%). The most frequently detected was L. pneumophila, followed by uncultured Legionella species, Legionella-like amoebal pathogen. Five species, L. bozemanii, L. dumoffi, L. feelei, L. lyticum and L. oakridgenesis, were all detected once. Legionella species were found in water temperatures ranging from 22 to 50 degrees C. Optimal pH appeared to be between 5.0 and 9.0. The prevalence of Legionella also coincided with the prevalence of indicator microorganisms. Legionella detection was not proportional to the frequency of cleaning. Results of this survey confirm the ubiquity of Legionella in Taiwan spring recreation areas. L. pneumophila, the organism responsible for the majority of legionellosis outbreaks, should be considered a potential public health threat in spa areas of Taiwan.

Hot Temperature↗
PubMed2003

Comparison of total coliform, fecal coliform, and enterococcus bacterial indicator response for ocean recreational water quality testing.

In July 1999, California's ocean recreational bacterial water quality standards were changed from a total coliform (TC) test to a standard requiring testing for all three bacterial indicators: TC, fecal coliforms (FC), and enterococci (EC). To compare the relationship between the bacterial indicators, and the effect that changing the standards would have on recreational water regulatory actions, three regional studies were conducted along the southern California shoreline from Santa Barbara to San Diego, California. Two studies were conducted during dry weather and one following a large storm event. In each study, samples were collected at over 200 sites which were selected using a stratified random design, with strata consisting of open beach areas and rocky shoreline, and areas near freshwater outlets that drain land-based runoff. During the dry weather studies, samples were collected once per week for 5 weeks. For the storm event study, sampling occurred on a single day about 24 h following the storm. The three indicator bacteria were measured at each site and the results were compared to the single sample standards (TC > 10,000; FC > 400 and EC > 104 MPN or cfu/100 ml). EC was the indicator that failed the single sample standards most often. During the wet weather study, 99% of all standard failures were detected using EC, compared with only 56% for FC, and 40% for TC. During the Summer Study, EC was again the indicator that failed the single sample standards most often, with 60% of the failures for EC alone. The increased failure of the EC standard occurred consistently regardless of whether the sample was collected at a beach or rocky shoreline site, or at a site near a freshwater outlet. Agreement among indicators was better during wet weather than during dry weather. During dry weather, agreement among indicators was better near freshwater outlets than along open shoreline. Cumulatively, our results suggest that replacement of a TC standard with an EC standard will lead to a five-fold increase in failures during dry weather and a doubling of failures during wet weather. Replacing a TC standard with one based on all three indicators will lead to an eight-fold increase in failures. Changes in the requirements for water quality testing have strong implications for increases in beach closures and restrictions.

California↗
PubMed2003

Determination of MTBE in a recreational harbor using solid-phase microextraction.

Discovery of the fuel additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) in groundwater, surface water, and stormwater has prompted studies of its sources, transport and fate. More limited data, however, is available on the extent of contamination of coastal waters, as well as the persistence of MTBE in the marine environment. We apply here the combination of solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to the detection of sub-to-low microgram/l concentrations of MTBE in seawater samples. Analysis of samples collected at the Marina del Rey harbor, a shallow recreational harbor near Los Angeles, CA, show MTBE contamination in the low microgram/l level. MTBE measurements were made at different depths, from the surface to the bottom, at five sites within the harbor during months showing no measurable precipitation. The highest concentration of MTBE (18 microgram/l) was found at the boat launching ramp, and the lowest (0.2 microgram/l) near the harbor entrance, approximately 2.3 km from the ramp. The levels of MTBE measured, as well as their variation over the study period, are fully consistent with recreational boating as the primary source of contamination. No evidence for MTBE contamination from the adjacent stormwater control channel was noted.

California↗
PubMed2002

Changes in blood lead of a recreational shooter.

We have measured the concentration and isotopic composition of lead in blood over a 15-month period for a subject who undertook recreational shooting in outdoor and indoor firing ranges on an irregular basis. We have also measured the isotopic composition in cast lead, Cu-jacketed and Teflon-coated bullets, propellant and primer from which he assembled the cartridges. Blood lead concentration increased from 3.2 to 6.7 microg/dl with use of dominantly cast lead bullets in the outdoor range. In two intervals when no firing was undertaken for 3-4 months, the blood lead concentrations either decreased towards a baseline value in the case where only Cu-jacketed bullets were fired or remained elevated when dominantly cast lead bullets were fired. The propellants contained <2 ppm Pb and contribute negligibly to blood lead. The isotopic composition of the primer used for all bullets was consistent with a source from the US. The bullets were of different materials and made in Australia and the US, with lead from sources of different geological age and hence different isotopic signatures. Variations in blood lead concentration and isotopic composition appear most strongly influenced by the bullets. Although more expensive, the use of Cu-jacketed bullets, non-lead primers and well-ventilated indoor firing ranges would lessen the health impacts of recreational shooting.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Improving functional outcomes with recreational therapy.

If you suddenly were incapacitated, wouldn't you expect your health care team to use interventions that were cost-effective, relevant to your recovery goals, and conducive to improved functional outcomes? Recreational therapy (RT), also known as therapeutic recreation, is a value-added treatment mode that contributes to improved functioning, independence, and recovery. This article provides information about RT, its accessibility, and its benefits.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2001

Sport and recreation activities and opportunities for children with spina bifida and cystic fibrosis.

A survey, completed by 69 parents whose children have cystic fibrosis and 97 parents of children with spina bifida, showed that opportunities for participation in sport and recreation activities were significantly greater for children with cystic fibrosis than for children with spina bifida. Parents from both groups felt that there was not enough variety available, that there was difficulty finding suitable activities which involved the whole family and that they had found barriers to their child participating in sport and recreation activities. The stresses of having a child with a significant disability and trying to balance the needs of these children with those of other non-affected family members was reflected by the finding that both groups of parents had double the rate of psychological health problems that would be expected in the population.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Enteroviruses in recreational waters of Northern Ireland.

Virus surveillance of Northern Ireland recreational waters, between April 1986 and May 1989 demonstrated widespread enteroviral contamination of coastal and inland waters. In 1986, enteroviruses were detected in 4 of 46 (8.7%) water samples, collected from 6 coastal bathing waters. In 1987, 49 of 107 (45.8%) samples, from 16 coastal bathing waters, yielded enteroviruses; 33 of the enterovirus positive samples passed one or both of the coliform standards outlined by the European Economic Community (EEC) bathing water directive (76/160/EEC). Enteroviruses were also detected in 33 of 39 (84.6%) samples tested from 3 inland recreational waters.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Modeling MTBE and BTEX in lakes and reservoirs used for recreational boating.

It is generally recognized that the bulk of fuel-related volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in lakes and reservoirs come from motorized recreational boating, but a quantitative connection between the two has been difficult to establish. A detailed boating use survey was conducted at a Northern California multiple-use lake, and the results were used to quantify daily methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) loading from recreational boating. A one-dimensional, process-based numerical model was used to predict VOC levels as a function of the number, type, and activity of marine engines using the lake, the vertical mixing dynamics of the lake, and the volatilization rates of the individual VOCs. The model was validated on two other reservoirs to establish its applicability under a range of climatic and boating conditions. The study further confirmed the link between motorized boating and surface-water VOC contamination. In addition, the results of this study suggest that volatilization alone is inadequate to describe the loss of volatile hydrocarbons from surface waters and that some combination of additional degradation processes is involved. Under low wind conditions, these degradation processes dominate the removal of MTBE. For toluene, these processes are always more dominant than volatilization. The mean relative percent difference (RPD) between measured and simulated VOC concentrations at the study site, accounting only for volatilization losses, was 50.6% for MTBE and 113% for toluene. A first-order submodel was implemented to account for losses other than volatilization, using decay coefficients estimated from the literature. The resulting mean RPDs between measured and modeled concentrations were 14.2% for MTBE and 4.5% for toluene.

Benzene↗
PubMed2006

Gender differences among recreational gamblers: association with the frequency of alcohol use.

This study examines the interactive effects of alcohol use and gender on health and gambling attitudes and behaviors in recreational gamblers. The Gambling Impact and Behavior Study (D. Gerstein et al., 1999) surveyed by telephone 2,417 adults targeted to be representative of the U.S. adult population. The authors compared male and female recreational gamblers (n = 1,471) who were stratified by frequency of alcohol use on measures of health and gambling. Significant Gender x Alcohol Use group interactions were observed such that moderate-to-high frequency alcohol consumption correlated with heavier gambling in men than in women, whereas such an association did not exist among abstinent or low frequency drinkers. There were few gender differences in the correlations between alcohol consumption and health. Future research should consider gender-related influences when examining alcohol use and gambling behaviors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Television viewing and low participation in vigorous recreation are independently associated with obesity and markers of cardiovascular disease risk: EPIC-Norfolk population-based study.

OBJECTIVE: This study describes the associations between sedentary behaviour (television viewing) and participation in vigorous recreational activity with obesity and with biomarkers of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk profile. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis of the EPIC-Norfolk cohort study. SETTING: The study is a population-based study of participants living in Norfolk, UK. SUBJECTS: A total of 15 515 men and women aged between 45 and 74 y, recruited through General Practice lists, who completed the detailed physical activity questionnaire. RESULTS: Following exclusion of those with self-reported myocardial infarction, stroke and diabetes, 14 189 participants remained for the analysis. Self-reported television viewing was positively and participation in vigorous activity negatively associated with markers of obesity, blood pressure and plasma lipids. In multiple regression analysis, adjusting for age, alcohol, smoking, treatment for hypertension, vigorous and total physical activity, these associations remained significant. For women who participated in more than 1 h/week of vigorous activity and who watched fewer than 2 h of television each day, the adjusted mean body mass index was 1.92 kg/m(2) less than for women who reported participating in no vigorous activity and who watched more than 4 h of television each day (P<0.001). The equivalent figure for men was 1.44 kg/m(2) (P<0.001). In a similar analysis, with blood pressure as the outcome, mean diastolic blood pressure difference between the extreme groups of vigorous activity and television viewing was 3.6 mmHg in men (P<0.001) and 2.7 mmHg (P=0.001) in women. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that time spent participating in vigorous recreational physical activity and television viewing, an indicator of a sedentary lifestyle, are associated with obesity and markers of CVD disease risk independent of total reported physical activity. Whether these observations represent the true underlying aetiological relations or are a manifestation of the different precision with which the subdimensions of activity are measured remains uncertain.

Aged↗
PubMed2000

Sports, recreation and employment following spinal cord injury--a pilot study.

STUDY DESIGN: A pilot postal survey. OBJECTIVE: To examine the levels of sporting/recreational activities, education and employment in people with spinal cord injury (SCI) and to assess if involvement in sport and recreation is associated with higher levels of education and employment. SETTING: National Spinal Injuries Centre (NSIC), Stoke Mandeville Hospital, Aylesbury, UK. METHODS: Forty-five subjects, who met the following criteria: SCI at level C5 or below, wheelchair dependent, aged between 18 and 50 at the time of injury, injured at least 10 years ago, admitted to the NSIC within 6 months of injury and resident in the UK, completed a 26-item postal questionnaire. RESULTS: Among the 45 subjects 47% participated in physical activities (20% in sport; 27% in recreation), 33% were employed (29% full-time) and 18.5% had undergone further education at the time of the survey. Participation in sports as well as employment status decreased after injury (P<0.01) usually as a result of poor access to sports and work facilities. Only 4% of investigated SCI patients started to practise physical activity after the accident whilst 42% stopped. CONCLUSIONS: Levels of sporting/recreational activities and employment decreased significantly after injury. No significant correlation was found between sport/recreation involvement and education/employment status. Further investigation with a large number of participants that will enable additional analysis of subgroups, such as level of injury and functional independence, is required.

Adult↗