A conceptual model for the identification, organization, and measure of influence of fertility policies and programs.
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Cultural Characteristics↗
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A computer program for modeling the kinetics of gene expression.
Enzyme induction may be modeled on the basis of four, quantifiable processes that control the rates at which specific gene products accumulate and decay. These processes include synthesis of functional mRNA, translation and degradation of mRNA, and degradation of the protein product. We present a simple computer program that permits mathematical simulation of gene expression on the basis of experimentally determined rates of synthesis and degradation. The program was implemented as a spreadsheet using Microsoft Excel for Macintosh and MS-DOS operating systems and also was adapted for HyperCard on the Macintosh. It contains a formula to account for growth of tissue or cell populations. The program predicts amounts of individual mRNAs and proteins (or enzyme activities) in cells as a function of time after a stimulus alters their rates of synthesis or degradation.
Animals↗
Population and family planning in China.
As the most populous country of the world, China pursues an integrated programme for socio-economic development with family planning as a vital part of it. The aim is to ensure that population growth does not outpace the economic development, the availability of natural resources and environmental protection efforts. Current policy on family planning includes: the promotion of late marriage and deferred child bearing, advocating the practice of "one couple, one child", to encourage birth spacing for those who want a second child. Technical guidelines are: contraception as the priority; comprehensive use of various contraceptive methods in men and women; induced abortion allowed on request if no contraindications; state provided contraceptives, barrier devices and technical services. The birth rate of 33.34/1000, death rate of 7.6/1000 and natural increase rate of 25.83/1000 in 1970 was brought down to 21.04/1000, 6.7/1000 and 14.26/1000 respectively in 1985. A total fertility for 1950 of 5.87 was gradually brought down to 2.31 in 1990. 260 million births were averted between 1970-1991; the world's "5-billion population day" was postponed for 2 years and Asian "3-billion population day" was postponed for 3 years. The State Family Planning Commission under the State Council was set up in 1981. The China Family Planning Association, the China Population Association and non-governmental organisations promote family planning work in a coordinated way. The current family planning policy is now well accepted in the urban area, and gaining increasing momentum in the rural area. Persistant education is still important to break the millennia old tradition of having more children and more boys.
Aging↗
Plasma lipid distributions in selected North American populations: the Lipid Research Clinics Program Prevalence Study. The Lipid Research Clinics Program Epidemiology Committee.
Cross-sectional age- and sex-specific plasma lipid distributions (means, medians and selected percentiles) are given for 48,431 white participants in visit 1 of the Lipid Research Clinics (LRC) Prevalence Study. This study consisted of two visits in which 10 LRCs screened participants selected from well-defined North American target populations that included a broad range of sociodemographic subgroups. These data confirm findings from earlier studies in developed countries, showing age-related differences in plasma lipid levels. However, for overall distributions, the LRC data showed slightly lower cholesterol and markedly higher triglyceride values than those previously reported for North America. Some variation in plasma lipid values was evident among the clinic populations. The large number of participants within most subgroups permitted a variety of analytic and comparative studies. For example, data from the large pediatric population revealed a drop in plasma cholesterol levels in adolescent males and females. Males aged 20--50 years had higher cholesterol levels than females in the same age group, and higher triglyceride levels between ages 20--70 years. Numbers were also sufficient for meaningful comparisons between lipid distributions of females who were taking sex hormones and those who were not: In females taking sex hormones, cholesterol and triglyceride levels were higher for subjects younger than 45 years, but slightly lower after age 45, than lipid levels in females not taking hormones.
Adolescent↗
Infant feeding practices in Bombay slums.
A study was conducted in two slum areas in a Bombay suburb covering a total population of 4879. One hundred and fifty-three mothers having children below two years were interviewed. Ninety six per cent infants below the age of 4 months received breast milk, though exclusive breastfeeding was practised only in 37% infants. Timely complementary feeding rate was only 0.48. Twenty three per cent of mothers used bottle for administration of supplementary food or water. Only 15.7% of mothers used commercial milk formula and 8.5% used commercial weaning food.
Bottle Feeding↗
Estimation of potential carcinogenic effects related to waterborne environmental contaminants.
Described here is a computer program that provides estimates of theoretical cancer levels in a community following long-term exposure to contaminants found in domestic drinking water. The program employs one of three low-dose risk assessment models using dichotomous outcome data to derive a dose-response curve. Based on this curve, lifetime probabilities are determined, by dose, for acquiring selected types of cancer in a specified population. The program allows for sensitivity analyses of varying demographic, epidemiologic, and environmental factors, all of which could influence the occurrence of disease at the community level.
Carcinogens, Environmental↗
A model for planning local contraceptive services.
Data were collected on abortion referral rates, single young maternity rates and uptake of contraceptive services in order to identify specific areas of unmet need in the Nottingham Health District. Comparisons were made between boroughs and in the City of Nottingham between electoral wards. There was a direct relationship between abortion rate, single young maternity rate and social disadvantage. Analysis of contraceptive usage suggested a more ineffective service in the inner city, which has implications for the more efficient use of resources in the future. Targeting of consumer acceptable services to residents of the inner city and teenagers in general was recommended as a result of the study. For future planning a more useful routine data set was developed to record the activity at family planning clinics.
Adolescent↗
Study of physical & sexual growth of preadolescent & adolescent children of rural Hyderabad and their knowledge attitudes towards human reproduction and family planning.
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Adolescent↗
Inbreeding of Wistar-Kyoto rat strain with hyperactivity but without hypertension.
A genetic inbreeding program using Wistar-Kyoto rat strains as progenitors was used to combine the hyperactivity trait of the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) with the normotensive trait of the WKY genetic control strain. From an SHR X WKY cross we produced a gene-assorting F2 population from which selected brother-sister matings were carried out through seven successive inbred populations. This program produced a new strain of hyperactive rats with normotensive mean systolic blood pressure levels, and we have designated the new strain as the Wistar-Kyoto hyperactive (WK/HA) rat. Another behavioral characteristic of the SHR rat, poor habituation in a nonreinforcing novel environment, did not appear as a characteristic trait of the new strain of WK/HA rats, suggesting a separate underlying genetic basis for the two traits that had been apparently fortuitously fixed in the SHR genotype as a result of intensive inbreeding of that strain. The new WK/HA strain, together with the WKY control strain, is considered as more suitable for subjects in studying hyperactivity in rats than the original SHR strain with its concomitant hypertension and poor habituation traits.
Animals↗
Effect of calcium on skeletal development, bone loss, and risk of fractures.
In assessing the role of calcium, it must be stressed that calcium is not the cause of bone health but simply a necessary condition for it. It is mechanical usage that is of primary importance for bone. In just the same way iron is essential for hemoglobin synthesis and protein is essential for muscle mass, but neither is sufficient by itself. What, then, ought we to expect from a high calcium intake? Can we prevent estrogen-withdrawal bone loss? No. Calcium is not a substitute for estrogen, anymore than it is a substitute for exercise. Will calcium slow the remodeling loss that occurs with aging? Yes, to some extent; as calcium slows remodeling, it will inevitably slow remodeling-related loss. But most importantly, a high calcium intake will prevent calcium-deficiency bone loss. The only question, therefore, is the extent to which calcium deficiency loss may contribute significantly to bone fragility in various populations. The bone loss and fracture data reviewed briefly here indicate that an important portion of the osteoporotic fracture burden is calcium-related. What that portion is will be a function of the fraction of the population with inadequate intakes in any given country. Better than half of all adult American women have calcium intakes less than 500 mg/day, whereas only a small fraction of Dutch or Danish women, for example, would be under that level. Hence, a population-wide program to increase calcium intake in the United States would be likely to yield a greater benefit than in either the Netherlands or Denmark. That does not mean, of course, that there could not be substantial benefit to individuals with low intakes in all countries. Calcium intakes of greater than or equal to 1,500 mg are both safe and natural. While not all bone loss and low trauma fractures are due to low calcium intake, some almost certainly are. Adaptation to low intakes does occur, but it is seldom sufficient to compensate for the low intake. We cannot easily distinguish those who need more calcium from those who need less, and for that reason it makes good sense to ensure an adequate calcium intake for the entire adult population. What should that intake be? During adolescence, 1,500 mg will come close to ensuring the achievement of genetically programmed levels of peak bone mass.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Bone and Bones↗
[Ultrasonographic diagnosis of tumors and non-tumor diseases in mass preventive examination of the rural population].
Ultrasound diagnostical examinations were performed during mass prophylactic check-ups in cotton-growing collective farms of Kashkadar'inskaya Region. Out of 903 examinees cancer was detected in 1 patient (0.11%), benign tumors in 11 (1.2%), precancer in 25 (2.7%), nontumor diseases in 298 (33.0%). The lesions were predominantly localized in the gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts. It is advisable to organize paid mobile teams at regional consultative and diagnostic centers for broad-scale check-ups of rural population. Screening programs of such teams are to include diagnostic ultrasound.
Adolescent↗
Doxepin: a useful adjunct in the treatment of heroin addicts in a methadone program.
An uncontrolled trial of doxepin as an adjunct to treatment of heroin addicts in a methadone program was performed over a 14-month period. Approximately 10% (27) of the program's population utilized a mean of 73 mg of doxepin, usually briefly, and beneficial results were noted in 93% (25). One adverse reaction occurred. No instance of habituation or addiction was noted. A controlled study is warranted to confirm the impression that doxepin represents a useful adjunct in the treatment of heroin addicts in a methadone program.
Adult↗
Methodology of ECG interpretation in the Dalhousie program; NOVACODE ECG classification procedures for clinical trials and population health surveys.
The Dalhousie ECG Program was designed specifically for the needs of epidemiologic studies, health surveys, and clinical trials. The program logic is dynamic in that it can accommodate any combination of ECG leads, record length and sampling rate. The NOVACODE module of the program classifies ECGs according to the Minnesota Code, supplemented with new sets of logic criteria for conduction defects, acute myocardial infarction, and serial ECG changes. Improved statistical models are incorporated for enhanced detection of myocardial infarction using the Cardiac Infarction Injury Score, and for quantification of left ventricular mass estimation. It is anticipated that these program improvements will enhance its utility particularly in monitoring progression and regression of cardiac involvement in hypertensive and ischemic heart disease, and in the assessment of the effectiveness of intervention on cardiovascular disease risk factors.
Adolescent↗
The accessibility of abortion services in the United States.
Abortion services are provided in hospitals, doctors' offices and various types of clinics, but about two-thirds of procedures are performed in specialized abortion clinics. While this system appears to work well for most women, some women seeking abortion face obstacles related to distance, cost, harassment and special medical conditions. Nine percent of nonhospital abortion patients must travel more than 100 miles and 18 percent travel 50 to 100 miles for services. The average woman having a first-trimester nonhospital abortion paid $251 in 1989. Fees were higher in facilities with small abortion caseloads. An abortion at 10 weeks' gestation in a hospital cost an average of $1,757. Charges for abortions at 16 weeks averaged $509 in abortion clinics, compared with $1,539 in hospitals for curettage and $2,246 for instillation procedures. Some women face other barriers: Only 43 percent of all abortion facilities offer services past 12 weeks, and 27-37 percent of nonhospital facilities say they do not treat patients who test positive for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes AIDS. Women who need special services such as an administration of Rh immunoglobulin, general anesthesia or HIV testing usually pay extra for these services. In addition, 85 percent of nonhospital facilities that serve 400 or more abortion patients a year reported some form of antiabortion harassment in 1988, most commonly picketing; there was virtually no change in this proportion between 1985 and 1988.
Abortion, Legal↗
Prevention of tap water scald burns: evaluation of a multi-media injury control program.
A prospective study was designed to evaluate a mass media injury prevention program reaching two million people to determine its impact on risk awareness of hot tap water burns and injury-prevention behavior. Liquid-crystal thermometers for testing hot water temperature were offered at no cost; 140,000 were requested. Pre- and post-program general population random surveys (N = 337 and 318, respectively) found increased awareness of the danger of hot tap water, from 72 per cent to 89 per cent, but no increase in testing or lowering of water heater temperatures. A third random sample survey (N = 325) among thermometer requesters found a higher rate of testing (difference 58.1 per cent, 95 per cent CL 55.3 per cent, 60.9 per cent) than in the general population. Of those who tested, 43 per cent reported temperatures in the dangerous range of 54.4 degrees C (130 degrees F) or greater; 52 per cent of this group lowered their water heater thermostat. These findings indicate that: more than 25 per cent of the public is unaware of the potential danger of hot tap water; a safety education program which increases awareness will not necessarily result in injury-control behavior; and most people motivated to request a free thermometer will test their hot water temperature and lower it if necessary. As a result of this effort, thermostats of an estimated 20,000 water heaters were lowered from dangerously high levels.
Adult↗
Understanding productivity, a key to Aedes aegypti surveillance.
The objective of this work was to define criteria that could be applied to achieve faster, more economical, and accurate assessment of vector populations for control of dengue viruses. During 1989-1990, 1,349 premises were surveyed in Townsville, Charters Towers and Mingela/Ravenswood, Queensland, Australia. In each locality, 1.9-8.4% of premises contained three or more containers with Aedes aegypti immature forms and were designated as key premises. Comparison of surveys in Townsville from 1989 to 1990 indicated that positive premises (i.e., those with at least one container with Ae. aegypti present) were 3.22 times more likely to remain positive than negative houses to become positive the following year. The Ae. aegypti population in Townsville was seen to be totally associated with garden receptacles, discarded household items, and trash but one well and one rainwater tank were responsible for 28% of all immature forms recorded in the 1,349 premises inspected. These breeding sites of high productivity were designated as key containers. At Charters Towers, Mingela, and Ravenswood, rainwater tanks were seen as the most important key container because although they constituted 13-29% of positive containers, they supported 60-63% of the immature forms. This study demonstrates that there is a certain degree of stability with regard to positive premises and that some of these, or some container types, contribute disproportionately to the Ae. aegypti population. Control programs could be made more efficient if efforts were concentrated on these sites of key vector productivity.
Aedes↗
User's perspective of counseling training in Ghana: the "mystery client" trial.
Evaluating counseling training programs from the client's perspective has posed a methodological challenge for family planning researchers. This report describes an evaluation method that combines clinic observation with an exit interview methodology. Eighteen women posing as clients were requested to visit three clinics with trained and three clinics with untrained family planning counselors. These clients (called "mystery clients" in Ghana) were later interviewed to uncover any perceived differences between the consultations. The effect of training was evident. Trained counselors consistently provided more complete information about all available contraceptives. However, both trained and untrained counselors often treated younger clients with disrespect or refused to give them the information they requested. This behavior indicated the need to strengthen the values clarification section of the counselors' training sessions, which has now been done.
Adolescent↗
Autonomous differentiation of dorsal axial structures from an animal cap cleavage stage blastomere in Xenopus.
Dorsal or ventral blastomeres of the 16- and 32-cell stage animal hemisphere were labeled with a lineage dye and transplanted into the position of a ventral, vegetal midline blastomere. The donor blastomeres normally give rise to substantial amounts of head structures and central nervous system, whereas the blastomere which they replaced normally gives rise to trunk mesoderm and endoderm. The clones derived from the transplanted ventral blastomeres were found in tissues appropriate for their new position, whereas those derived from the transplanted dorsal blastomeres were found in tissues appropriate for their original position. The transplanted dorsal clones usually migrated into the host's primary axis (D1.1, 92%; D1.1.1, 69%; D1.1.2, 100%), and in many cases they also induced and populated a secondary axis (D1.1, 43%; D1.1.1, 67%; D1.1.2, 63%). Bilateral deletion of the dorsal blastomeres resulted in partial deficits of dorsal axial structures in the majority of cases, whereas deletions of ventral midline blastomeres did not. When the dorsal blastomeres were cultured as explants they elongated. Notochord and cement glands frequently differentiated in these explants. These studies show that the progeny of the dorsal, midline, animal blastomeres: (1) follow their normal lineage program to populate dorsal axial structures after the blastomere is transplanted to the opposite pole of the embryo; (2) induce and contribute to a secondary axis from their transplanted position in many embryos; (3) are important for the normal formation of the entire length of the dorsal axis; and (4) autonomously differentiate in the absence of exogenous growth factor signals. These data indicate that by the 16-cell stage, these blastomeres have received instructions regarding their fate, and they are intrinsically capable of carrying out some of their developmental program.
Animals↗