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PubMed2005

Chronologic history of occupational medicine.

OBJECTIVES: To provide a chronologic review of growing knowledge in occupational medicine relating work and work hazards to health, and to provide a perspective on the lessons learned from the frequent inattention or misrepresentation of hazards. METHODS: Many books on the social and medical history of work including epidemiology and toxicology were reviewed, as well as published papers and interviews. RESULTS: Throughout history workplace hazards and occupational medicine have been shaped by the forces that shape work itself, social evolution, changing modes of production, shifting economic powers, and demographic changes in the workforce. Lest we think these changes are unique to the present time, this paper emphasizes the long-term and inevitable relationship between social structure and worker health. Hippocrates emphasized the relation between environment (air and water) and health, although he has less to say about the non-military work environment, perhaps because of the denigration of manual labor in Greece. The impact of work on health can be traced to the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, written approximately 1700 BC. The earliest occupational physicians served military forces, and Galen was physician to Roman gladiators. Finger and wrist guards worn by Bronze Age archers represent early personal protective equipment. Writers of the classic period mention diseases and hazards of miners, and Pliny (1st century AD) mentions veils to cover the face. In the Middle East Rhazes included occupation in his case studies (9th century). Paracelsus, and Agricola were prominent, figures in the 15th century, with an emphasis on mining and health. Ramazzini's (c1700) work was widely translated in ensuing decades and is now well-known to all, but its influence between about 1800 and 1940 is inapparent. The emergence of a public health movement in the mid-1800s focused attention on the abominable conditions of many factories and on the living conditions, poor nutrition, high stress, poverty and ill health of the new factory working class, while paying scant attention to specific workplace hazards. CONCLUSIONS: The recognition of occupational diseases in the United States has often lagged by a generation behind the recognition of the same diseases in Europe. We are now into a second industrial revolution led by multinational corporations and information technology, shifting production facilities, and jobs moving around the world in search of cheap labor in the countries with the fastest growing population and the greatest poverty. Occupational medicine must be alert to the new challenges imposed by this revolution.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Descriptions of therapeutic arthrocenthesis and of synovial fluid in a Nahuatl text from prehispanic Mexico.

Paracelsus is considered to have been the first to record the viscid quality of the synovial fluid. However, his contemporary Bernardino de Sahagún, a Franciscan friar who came to Mexico shortly after the Spanish conquest, obtained from elderly Aztec Indians who spoke only Nahuatl the descriptions of therapeutic arthrocentesis and of the viscid nature of the synovial fluid. They compared the fluid from the knee joint to the viscid fluid from the leaves of the nopal cactus (Opuntia sp.). We here record their description and confirm the accuracy of their comparison.

History of Medicine↗
PubMed1996

[History of menstruation--an aspect of the medical history of the woman].

The understanding of menstruation as well as the image of women have much changed in the course of history. This development, as reflected by the views of the Old Testament (Leviticus), of Hippocrates and Aristoteles, its characterization in the books of Hildegard of Bingen and of Paracelsus, its description in the Renaissance and the 18th century, is followed up to our modern times.

Female↗
PubMed2000

Review: drug therapy in Chinese traditional medicine.

This article addresses the differences between the basic concepts of drug therapy in Chinese traditional medicine (CTM) and modern Western medicine. In ancient times, throughout the world, humans used plants as food and medicine. In Europe, chemistry developed rapidly after the influence of Paracelsus. Active principles were isolated from plants, and drugs were prepared in the salt form to use as medication. In China, several drugs isolated from plants have been prepared in the salt form in recent years, but herbal medication, developed in the ancient tradition, continued to be widely used in Chinese populations. Some theories such as the yin-yang theory and the five-element theory were commonly employed to explain the rationale for the use of CTM. In this review, hypertension and diabetes mellitus are used as examples to illustrate the applications of CTM. The notions of the "whole" and the use of "relative" rather than absolute are important concepts, which distinguish CTM from modern medicine.

Drugs, Chinese Herbal↗
PubMed2004

Particle and Fibre Toxicology, a new journal to meet a real need.

This Editorial is to announce Particle and Fibre Toxicology, a new Open Access, peer-reviewed, online journal published by BioMed Central. The field of particle and fibre toxicology has a long and famous history stretching from Agricola and Paracelsus in the 15th and 16th century to the challenges of the 21st century-nanoparticles, nanotubes and particulate matter (PM10) to name just three. Throughout this time there has been no single journal dedicated to the toxicology of particles and fibres and this is finally corrected by the launch of Particle and Fibre Toxicology. The rationale for Particle and Fibre Toxicology rests on this need for a single multi-disciplinary journal that can cover all research relevant to particle and fibre toxicology, from Hygiene studies, through particle generation and characterisation, to animal, cell and human toxicology studies, dosimetry and modelling. The editorial also deals with the philosophy and practicalities of Open Access publishing, the journal's peer-review policy and conflict-of-interest. Particle and Fibre Toxicology is aimed at bringing together multi-disciplinary research findings towards a better understanding of how particles and fibres adversely affect the lungs and the body generally. We hope that the launch of the new journal will aid in the advance of this important discipline to the greater benefit of occupational and public health and invite scientists working in this key discipline to submit their research.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

Hormesis and risk assessment.

It is postulated in this paper that at low doses all chemicals have hormetic/hormoligotic (beneficial) effects in living organisms. It has been known since Paracelsus that at high doses all chemicals are toxic. The combination of low and high dose effects can be empirically described by a beta-curve or an inverted beta-curve. A mathematical method is suggested to determine the maximum of the beta-curve or the minimum of the inverted beta-curve, yielding a point estimate for risk assessment.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Retracing "Ondine's curse".

"Ondine's curse" is a term used to denote a rare neurological condition causing failure of automatic respiration. The patients are no longer capable of breathing spontaneously-they must consciously and voluntarily force themselves to do so. Ondine (also known as "Undine"), a mythological figure of European tradition, was a water nymph or sprite who could become human only when she fell in love with a mortal man. However, if the mortal was unfaithful to her, he was destined to forfeit his life. In the 16th century, Paracelsus coined the term "Undine" to describe the spirit that inhabited the element of water. Baron de la Motte-Fouque wrote the story of Undine in the late 18th century. It has since become a popular subject for theater productions. Jean Giraudoux, the French playwright, introduced the concept of the loss of automaticity of all functions as the "curse of Ondine." The legend was popularized in the form of the fairy tale "The Little Mermaid" by Hans Christian Andersen and as an animated motion picture by Walt Disney Productions. In this study, we look at the origins of this eponymous term, the personalities intertwined with its popularity, and its misrepresentations in the medical literature.

Humans↗
PubMed2004

Botulinum toxin: a successful therapeutic protein.

Botulinum toxin serotype A has proven to be a successful and valuable therapeutic protein when dosage, frequency of treatment and variety of treated clinical conditions are considered. This modern therapeutic protein was predicted by Justinus Kerner, a 19th century German physician, who provided the first detailed clinical description of botulism and its association with faulty sausage production. Kerner was preceded by Paracelsus, who described the duality of a drug as "only the dose makes a remedy poisonous". This concept is well known to modern medicinal chemists, pharmacologists and clinicians worldwide. Because botulinum toxin is an enzyme and specifically delivered to its target cell/neuron, exceedingly small doses are needed to exert its pharmacological effect. Botulinum toxin therapy is successful because of the local administration of nanogram quantities of this highly selective and long-lasting (months) therapeutic effect, which leads to symptomatic relief of numerous disease conditions. These minute therapeutic doses are dramatically lower than the doses needed to cause systemic disease (e.g. botulism). This review will focus on the current understanding of the mechanism of action of botulinum neurotoxins and the pharmacology of the various approved-marketed products and the direction of future research.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Hormesis, Gompertz functions, and risk assessment.

A historical survey of the literature indicates that benefits derived from low doses of toxic substances have been reported over many centuries. Hippocrates, Paracelsus, Arndt, Schulz, and Hahnemann (founder of homeopathy) have all reported that low doses of toxic substances may be "stimulatory" or otherwise beneficial. Assessment of mortality data from modern-day bioassay studies indicates that low-dose animal exposure to a variety of toxic agents can, through an unknown mechanism, also induce beneficial changes which promote health and prolong life (longevity hormesis). This nonspecific and apparently reversible phenomenon has been modeled kinetically through use of age-specific mortality rate and a generalized Gompertz function; the basic assumption is that mortality in an interval is a function of the weighted sum of intensities of physiologic injury during that interval. It was assumed that longevity-enhancing hormetic reduction in population injury may be decremented from life-shortening injury produced through the aging process and concomitant toxicity. At low exposure levels, a net reduction in age-specific mortality rate can sometimes be observed. The implications for risk assessment are significant. It is tacitly assumed in generating virtually all estimates of risk that toxic manifestations observed at higher doses are the sole effects elicited at lower doses. This appears to be qualitatively incorrect.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Gout and kidney during XVII and XIX centuries].

The authors briefly describe the history of gout, mainly focusing their attention on the renal involvement. They report some works and theories on gout of great ancient physicians, such as Paracelsus, Sydenham, Boerhaave, Van Swieten and Morgagni.

Europe↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Synovial fluid over the centuries].

This review deals with the most meaningful historical topics on the study of synovial fluid, by starting from the Greco-Roman Medicine, up to Paracelsus (1493-1541), who introduced the term "synovia" to name the intra-articular humour. Afterwards, some till now unreported historical sources are recorded, e.g., a short text by the Italian XVIII century physician Giambattista Contoli ("Breve Instruzione sopre il Glutine, ò Colla., 1699"). Then, in keeping with some recent researches, a brief history of arthrocentesis is outlined, by considering the first procedures, which should have been performed in Mexico, during the precolonial period. Moreover, the first chemical analysis of synovial fluid, as carried out by the French chemist Jean-Louis Margueron (1792), and the first modern study on the synovial membrane by Marie-François-Xavier Bichat (1800) are explained. Finally, some XIX century investigations concerning the synovial pharmacodynamics, in particular an Italian one based on the elimination of certain chemical substances through the synovial membrane, are discussed.

History, 15th Century↗
PubMed1993

Magnetic healing, quackery, and the debate about the health effects of electromagnetic fields.

Although the biological effects of low-frequency electromagnetic radiation have been studied since the time of Paracelsus, there is still no consensus on whether these effects are physiologically significant. The recent discovery of deposits of magnetite within the human brain as well as recent, highly publicized tort litigation charging adverse effects after exposure to magnetic fields has rekindled the debate. New data suggest that electromagnetic radiation generated from power lines may lead to physiologic effects with potentially dangerous results. Whether these effects are important enough to produce major epidemiologic consequences remains to be established. The assumption of quackery that has attended this subject since the time of Mesmer's original "animal magnetism" investigations continues to hamper efforts to compile a reliable data base on the health effects of electromagnetic fields.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Some Remarks on the Classification of Subjective Idiopathic Tinnitus (SIT) - An Essay toward Establishing a Cross-matched Grading System.

To better quantify levels of individual impairment caused by SIT, two different sets of classification were cross matched. This combination factored in the inaccuracy caused by terminologic inexactitude. Although the system which developed historically had a subjective bias, the newer tests created to analyze tinnitus specifically were far more objective. By combining the findings of both tests using a numeric score, rating tinnitus should become more exact. Classification of tinnitus began long ago in ancient Babylon. In the library of the court of King Assurbanipal (668 to 626 B.C.), clay slates were found which gave the first written classification of tinnitus. Later Pliny, Paracelsus, Itard, and Politzer developed separate systems of tinnitus classification.(2) All these systems can be broken down into the branches of epidemiology, etiology, and legal requirements. Epidemiology gives information on tinnitus in "terms of time, place, and persons." Etiology provides a means to summarize the relationships between the subjective findings of tinnitus and relationships in terms of pathoetiology. It is the large numbers of single complaints about tinnitus and possible associated relationships of pathologic relationships that cause the different clinical classification of tinnitus. In terms of legal disability, a more accurate classification will permit graduated comprehensions of the irritation experienced by the patient and related personal, social and occupational interferences. Measuring these grades of impairment will allow comparison of different types of tinnitus. Unlike other audiologic failures such as generalized hearing loss and disturbances of equilibrium resulting from vestibular affections, assessment of the intensity of tinnitus and its involvement in personal life is restricted by limitations, because each classification system contains inaccuracies per se.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2000

[History of St. Johns wort].

St.-John's wort owes its name to the fact that it flowers at the time of the summer solstice on or around St. John's day on 24 June. Having been administered as a remedy by the Roman military doctor Proscurides as early as the 1st century AD, it was mainly used for magic potions during the Middle Ages. It was not only used to protect humans and animals against witches, demons and evil diseases, but it was also added to the fire when moulding "Freikugel" [1]. Paracelsus was one of the first doctors to concern themselves with St.-John's wort. However, where it had formerly been used for a plethora of indications, in more recent times it has found its place in the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. In numerous clinical double-blind trials against placebo and other antidepressants the whole extract of St.-John's wort, e.g. as in Jarsin coated tablets, has proved to be just as effective as the other antidepressants for mild and moderate depression, but not for severe depression.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The alkahest, universal dissolvent or when theory turns an impossible practice into the imaginable].

Using again a term coined by Paracelsus, Van Helmont calls Alkahest the universal solvent able to reduce any body in its prime matter. The search for Alkahest takes up a great part of the chemical works of the second half of the seventeenth century. Simple corrosive product for some, "Philosophers' Mercury" for others, Alkahest withstands objections in spite of its absurd properties, by means of the persistence of alchemical theories in the field of chemistry.

Alchemy↗
PubMed1997

Brief history of medicine in Slovenia.

Slovenes have lived in the territory of today's Slovenia for more than 14 centuries, whilst the history of its medical culture goes back for 2000 years. The advent of Christianity in Slovenia in the eighth century AD marked an important turning point in the development of its medicine. The 500 years of the Habsburg monarchy was later to have a further impact on the development of new medical ideas. During the Renaissance, the names of the Slovene doctors Mattioli, Paracelsus, Scopoli and Hacquet, who worked among Slovenians, were to become known all over Europe. Others of Slovene origin were Perlach, Santorio, Gerbezius, Carbonarius, Plenciz, and Sagar, whose work influenced European medical culture, especially in German speaking countries. However their Slovene nationality was not acknowledged until the second half of the 19th century.

History, Ancient↗
PubMed1998

Occupational medicine in the Idria mercury mine in the 18th century.

Of all medical sciences in Slovenia, occupational medicine has the longest tradition. It is not a mere coincidence that it had developed already at the beginning of 18th century in Idria. The Mercury mine in Idria, is the second largest European mine of its kind, next to the Spanish Almaden, and has been owned by the Habsburg dynasty for four centuries. To attain higher production, the miners in Idria received medical and social care much earlier than anywhere else; chronic intoxication caused by mercury fumes greatly hindered their working ability. The first and, at the same time, one of the most prominent doctors in Idria, J.A. Scopoli (1723-1788) perfectly described the symptoms of chronic intoxication with mercury in his work De Hydrargyro Idriensi Tentamina Physico-Chymico-Medica (Venice, 1761) and thus ranked himself among the early medical writers of occupational medicine, medical hygiene and toxicology. His predecessors were Ellenbog, Paracelsus, Mattioli and some others. The article describes the situation in the mine of Idria in the 17th and 18th century and focusses on Scopoli's mineralogical and medical discussion on mercury miners and mercurialism.

History, 18th Century↗
PubMed1994

[Lecturers in chemistry at the Medical Faculty of the University of Nagyszombat].

After a short introduction on the development of the medieval universities at Pécs, Obuda, and Pozsony, and mentioning those who lectured in medicine in Hungary, the authors emphasise that modern chemistry was born during the 16th and 17th century. They stress the role of Paracelsus who invented iatro-chemistry, and that the first independent chairs, were founded in Germany in the beginning of 17th century at Altdorf, Marburg, Jéna, but were followed suit by Paris, when the Jardin des Plantes were erected. The first chemical textbook, the Cours de Chimie (Paris 1665), was also the work of a Frenchman, namely Nicolas Lémery (1645-1715). From the 18th century chemistry was also included in the curriculum of medical education in Hungary. Among the chairs of the newly founded medical faculty at Nagyszombat we find the chemical-botanical department in 1769. Its first professor was an Austrian physician Jakab Winterl (1773-1809), who had been a head physician at Selmecbánya, in Northern Hungary. Owing to a rash and premature publication Winterl's international reputation was unfortunately undermined in the last century by a leading German science historian, Hermann Kopp. The authors stress, however, that Winterl indeed played an important role in organizing the chemical department, and purchasing all the necessary equipment needed for up to date researches and analyses. And above all, in his Prolusiones ad chemiam saeculi decimi noni, he foresaw many forthcoming paths and discoveries of 19th century chemistry. After Winterl's retirement the department was divided into two parts. Pál Kitaibel (1757-1817) led the botanica department and János schuster (1777-1838) the other one for chemistry. Kitaibel made a name for himself by depicting Hungarian flora, but he also made discoveries in chemistry. He discovered chlore lime, before Tennant in 1795, a material which might have been used for whitening textiles. Schuster, on the other hand, introduced a system of Hungarian terms for chemical science. He was also the first chemist among the members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. after his death in 1838 the professorship had been vacant for two years, because the authorities did not want to nominate Schuster's assistant, the devoted patriot Károly Nendtvich (1811-1892). It was eventually E. Sangaletti, who was appointed, in spite that he had not produced any publication at all, upon which his application to the professorship in chemistry to the Prague University had been turned down. Though Nendtvich led the department during the revolution of 1848/49, Sangaletti returned in 1849 and remained there until 1853. His successor, Theodor Wertheim from Vienna, was a much better chemist and lecturer. He led the department until 1860, when he moved to the University of Graz. Though in 1850 the department was removed from the medical faculty to the faculty of arts, because the universitiy began to educate secondary-school teachers as well, the education of medical students was carried on there for another century. The authors mention Károly Than (1834-1908), who became Wertheim's successor at the department.

Chemistry↗