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At least 289 records · Page 16Linked to original sources
PubMed2002

Morphometrical study of the joint surface and capsule of the lumbar zygapophysial joint with special reference to their laterality.

Using 26 osteoligamentous lumbar vertebral columns (260 facets), we morphometrically investigated the cartilagenous joint surface, inner capsular surface and capsular thickness. We also examined whether the subcapsular pocket was present and, if present, how far it extended along the joint margin. The proportion of the inner capsular area in the total joint surface area in a facet (the capsular-joint surface ratio) was hypothesized to correspond to the potential looseness (or tightness) of the facet. The absolute data themselves seemed to be useful for better understanding of the joint morphology. However, further evaluations of the differences between segments, left/right differences, individual segmental fluctuation patterns and correlations between parameters provided a novel classification of specimens according to the hypothetical progress of joint degeneration. Criteria for the classification existed in 1) the laterality in parameters defined as more than 100% larger or smaller than the contralateral facet and 2) the drastic segmental difference in parameters over 50% larger or smaller than the adjacent segment. Consequently, three types were identified: 1) outside of the criteria in both area and thickness (-/- type, 9 of 26); 2) the criteria did not fit the area parameters but did fit the thickness parameters (-/+ type, 8); the criteria were filled in both categories of parameters (+/+ type, 9). Notably, in the +/+ types, the capsular thickness and capsular-joint surface ratio correlated significantly (p < 0.01), i.e., the hypothetical loose joint had a thick capsule. We speculated that early joint degeneration starts from the -/- type and advances via the -/+ type to the +/+ type. Considerating these results, we recommended using MR imaging for detailed identification of laterality in the capsular thickness for low-back pain patients to discriminate candidates for future severe degenerative changes of the articular cartilage in the lumbar spine.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The effect of monopolar radiofrequency treatment pattern on joint capsular healing. In vitro and in vivo studies using an ovine model.

The purpose of this study was to compare joint capsular healing after two delivery patterns of monopolar radiofrequency energy: 1) uniform treatment of the joint capsule (paintbrush pattern) and 2) multiple single linear passes (grid pattern). First, an in vitro study was performed to compare the percent shrinkage of these two treatment patterns using the femoropatellar joints (stifles) of six sheep. Monopolar radiofrequency energy (settings, 70 degrees C/15W) was applied to the lateral joint capsule; the treated area was approximately 10 x 10 mm. There was no significant difference in shrinkage between the grid (27% +/- 8.7%) and paintbrush (29% +/- 7.9%) patterns. In the in vivo study, stifles of 24 sheep were randomly assigned to the paintbrush or the grid pattern groups and treatment was performed arthroscopically. Sheep were sacrificed immediately after surgery, or at 2, 6, or 12 weeks after surgery. At 6 weeks after surgery, confocal microscopy demonstrated that treated areas had almost completely repaired in the grid group; some nonviable areas were still present in the paintbrush group. Mechanical testing at 6 weeks indicated that joint capsule in the grid group had better mechanical properties than capsule in the paintbrush group. This study revealed that radiofrequency treatment of joint capsule in a grid pattern allowed faster healing than tissue treated in a paintbrush pattern.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

The role of negative intra-articular pressure in the maintenance of shoulder joint stability in dogs.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of negative intra-articular pressure on shoulder joint stability in canine cadavers. Cadaver forelimbs from 12 mature dogs were used. The forelimbs were placed in a testing frame and axially preloaded with 4 kg of weight. Shoulder joint stability was tested in flexion, extension, and neutral position before and after venting of the joint capsule. Humeral translation relative to the glenoid was induced by applying a 3 kg load in three different directions (cranial, lateral, and medial) and quantitatively measured by use of an electromagnetic motion tracking system. Peak translational data were compared in each joint position before and after venting of the joint capsule. After venting the shoulder joint capsule, a significant increase in translation was observed in the cranial direction with the joint in neutral position and in the medial direction with the joint in extension. The horizontal translations measured after venting of the joint capsule were likely not clinically relevant. Negative intra-articular pressure is not a major contributor to shoulder stability in dogs during weight-bearing.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Effect of knee joint effusion on quadriceps and soleus motoneuron pool excitability.

PURPOSE: To examine changes in quadriceps and soleus MN pool activity resulting from knee joint effusion over a 4-h period and assess the relationship between the muscles. METHODS: A repeated measures before-after trial design was used for this study. Eight, neurologically sound volunteers (age 23.3+/-2.1 yr, height 171.8+/-15.9 cm, mass 65.5+/-17.7 kg) participated in this study. An area superomedial to the patella was cleaned and anesthetized, and 30 mL of sterile saline was injected into the knee joint capsule to mimic mechanical joint effusion. The Hoffman reflex (H-reflex) was elicited by applying a percutaneous stimulus to the appropriate nerve and recording the response through surface electromyography. Soleus and vastus medialis H-reflex measures were collected from each volunteer before, at 30 min, 90 min, 150 min, and 210 min intervals over a 4-h period after knee effusion. RESULTS: All soleus H-reflex measures after effusion (30 min 5.89+/-0.92 V; 90 min 6.16+/-0.48 V; 150 min 6.59+/-0.50 V; 210 min 6.70+/-0.56 V) were increased in relation to the preeffusion measure (5.01+/-0.79 V). All vastus medialis H-reflex measures after effusion (30 min 4.23+/-0.94 V; 90 min 4.15 +/-1.11 V; 150 min 4.16+/-0.57 V; and 210 min 4.99+/-1.23) were decreased in relation to the preeffusion measure (5.88+/-1.44 V; P < or = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Afferent activity from the knee joint capsule resulted in an inhibitory effect on the vastus medialis and a facilitatory effect on the soleus. Facilitation of the soleus in cooperation with other lower extremity musculature could be a mechanism for compensation of the inhibited quadriceps to maintain lower kinetic chain function.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Extraforaminal ligament attachments of human lumbar nerves.

STUDY DESIGN: An anatomic study of the extraforaminal attachments of the lumbar spinal nerves was performed using human lumbar spinal columns. OBJECTIVES: To identify and describe the existence of ligamentous structures at each lumbar level that attach lumbar spinal nerves to structures at the level of the extraforaminal region. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: During the last 120 years, several mechanisms to protect the spinal nerve against traction have been described. All these structures involved are located in the spinal canal, proximal to the intervertebral foramen. METHODS: Five embalmed human lumbar spines (T12-S1) were used. Bilaterally, the extraforaminal region was dissected to describe and measure anatomic structures and their relationships. Histology was performed with staining on the sites of attachment and along the ligament. RESULTS: The levels T12-L2 show bilaterally 2 ligaments, a superior extraforaminal ligament and an inferior extraforaminal ligament. The superior extraforaminal ligament emerges from the joint capsule of the facet joints and inserts in both, the intervertebral disc and the ventral crista of the intervertebral foramen, passing the spinal nerve laterally. In one specimen on level L2-L3, the superior extraforaminal ligament is not attached to the spinal nerve. The inferior extraforaminal ligament emerges from the intervertebral disc, passing the nerve medially and attaching the spinal nerve. At the levels L2-L5, the inferior extraforaminal ligaments are only attached to the intervertebral disc, not to the joint capsule. Histologically, the ligaments consisted of mainly collagenous structures. CONCLUSION: Ligamentous connections exist between lumbar extraforaminal spinal nerves and nearby structures.

Aged, 80 and over↗
PubMed1989

[Interposition of the fascia and capsule in treatment of hip joint dysfunction in rheumatoid arthritis].

A surgical method of recovery of functional activity and painlessness of the hip deprived of the cartilage in the loaded part has been presented. The operation consisted of interposition with the fascia or a joint capsule flap. The results obtained in 12 patients after 1-12 years of follow-up have been given. Recovery of functional activity was obtained in 8 patients and improvement in 4 patients. In comparison with a group of 32 similar cases of interposition on the background of another etiology; interposition in rheumatoid arthritis gives more good and fair results.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

A comparison of joint stability between anterior cruciate intact and deficient knees: a new canine model of anterior cruciate ligament disruption.

Transection of the canine anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a well-established osteoarthritis (OA) model. This study evaluated a new method of canine ACL disruption as well as canine knee joint laxity and joint capsule (JC) contribution to joint stability at two time points (16 and 26 weeks) after ACL disruption (n=5/time interval). Ten crossbreed hounds were evaluated with force plate gait analysis and radiographs at intervals up to 34 weeks after monopolar radiofrequency energy (MRFE) treatment of one randomly selected ACL. Each contralateral ACL was sham treated. The MRFE treated ACLs ruptured approximately eight weeks (mean 52.5 days, SEM+/-1.0, range 48-56 days) after treatment. Gait analysis and radiographic changes were consistent with established canine ACL transection models of OA. Anterior-posterior (AP) translation and medial-lateral (ML) rotation were measured in each knee at 30 degrees, 60 degrees, and 90 degrees of flexion with and then without JC with loads of 40 N in AP translation and 4 Nm in ML rotation. A statistically significant interaction in AP translation included JC by cruciate (P=0.02), and there was a trend for a cruciate by time (P=0.07) interaction. Significant interactions in ML rotational testing included the presence of joint capsule (P=0.0001) and angle by cruciate (P=0.0012). This study describes a model in which canine ACLs predictably rupture approximately eight weeks after arthroscopic surgery and details the contribution of JC to canine knee stability in both ACL intact and deficient knees. The model presented here avoids the introduction of potential surgical variables at the time of ACL rupture and may contribute to studies of OA pathogenesis and inhibition. This model may also be useful for insight into the pathologic changes that occur in the knee as the ACL undergoes degeneration prior to rupture.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Holmium:YAG laser-assisted capsular shift in a canine model: intraarticular pressure and histologic observations.

The purpose of this study was to determine the initial effects of Holmium:YAG laser energy on the shoulder joint capsule. A new surgical procedure to correct shoulder joint instability uses Holmium:YAG laser energy to cause "shrinkage" of joint capsular tissues. To date there has been no information concerning an intraoperative measurable end point for the application of laser energy at surgery or the resultant depth and degree of tissue alteration. Seven greyhound dogs were used in this study. Preoperative intraarticular pressures (IAP) were measured on entry and after injection of 10 ml of solution. Laser energy was applied to the cranial medial glenohumeral ligament and joint capsule of all right shoulders with arthroscopic visualization. The unoperated left shoulders served as the control group. Six weeks after surgery pressure measurements were performed on both shoulders. A "second look" arthroscopy was performed on the shoulders. After euthanasia was performed, the anterior capsular tissues were harvested from both shoulders for histologic examination. The specimens were inspected by three blinded examiners. After 6 weeks the postoperative laser-treated IAP were higher than the same joint preoperative IAP in four of six dogs for both static nondistension and 10 ml distension measurements. At this same interval the marked tissue damage of the treated capsule was easily discerned by blinded observers. On histologic evaluation the laser-treated capsule showed synovitis and pericapsular tissue reactivity. The depth of the injury was beyond the joint capsule into the pericapsular tissue. It was not possible to determine the end point of the capsular "shrinkage" operation by combined pressure/volume intraoperative measurements. There was no uniform joint capsule compliance at 6 weeks. The histologic changes were extensive in both magnitude and depth. Future studies in this animal should include decreased laser energy plus other means of monitoring the intraoperative effects of laser use.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Myofibroblast numbers are elevated in human elbow capsules after trauma.

Elbow contractures, a frequent problem after injury, can be treated by excision of the joint capsule. However, the underlying changes in the joint capsule are poorly understood. Based on skin healing work, we examined the hypotheses that myofibroblast numbers and expression of a myofibroblast marker alpha-smooth muscle actin, are elevated in patients with posttraumatic joint contractures. Anterior capsules were obtained from six patients who had operative release of posttraumatic contractures greater than 5 months after injury and six elbows of organ donors free of contractures. Immunohistochemical studies revealed that myofibroblast numbers and percentage of total cells that were myofibroblasts were significantly elevated in the joint capsules from patients with contractures (326 +/- 61 cells per field, 36% +/- 4% total cells) when compared with similar tissues of the organ donors (69 +/- 41 cells per field, 9% +/- 4% total cells). Western blot analysis showed that protein levels of alpha-smooth muscle actin were significantly elevated in patients with posttraumatic joint contractures. However, analysis with reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction determined that messenger ribonucleic acid levels for smooth muscle actin normalized to the housekeeping gene glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase were not significantly different between the two groups. An association between increased numbers of myofibroblasts and posttraumatic joint contractures has been established in the human elbow capsule. Additional work is required to determine whether myofibroblast regulators may be targets for adjuvant therapies of posttraumatic contractures.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Topography of mechanoreceptors in the shoulder joint region--a computer-aided 3D reconstruction in the laboratory mouse.

BACKGROUND: We investigated the pattern of distribution of corpuscular sensory nerve endings in the shoulder region of the laboratory mouse in relation to their functional properties. METHODS: Twelve adult female white NMRI-F2-mice were used. The topography of sensory nerve endings in the shoulder joint region was reconstructed by three-dimensional image processing by using serial silver-stained sections of paraffin-embedded samples. Semithin sections obtained from additional samples were used for light microscopy. RESULTS: Within the fibrous layer of the joint capsule, three types of mechanoreceptors were identified: small lamellated corpuscles of the Pacini type, Ruffini corpuscles, and Golgi tendon organs. Intracapsular small lamellated corpuscles of the Pacini type (in an average number of 29/joint) were found mainly in three areas: in the predominantly flaccid tissue of the axillary region, in the denser ventromedial parts of the capsule, close to the scapula, and in the tight texture of the fiber bundles near the glenoid labrum. Ruffini corpuscles were identified only in small numbers (2/joint) in the ventral aspect of the articular capsule of two animals. Golgi tendon organs (14 or 15 receptors/joint) were discovered predominantly in close vicinity to the joint capsule at the muscle tendon junction of the inserting rotator cuff muscles and in the biceps brachii and triceps brachii muscles. CONCLUSIONS: In view of their location in the shoulder joint capsule and the glenoid labrum, corpuscular mechanoreceptors evidently play an important role in joint control by inducing protective reflex actions in phases of extreme or abnormal movement. The density of sensory receptors in distinct areas of the shoulder joint capsule appears to be related to zones that are subjected to increased biomechanical stress during physical activity.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Topography of corpuscular mechanoreceptors in the shoulder joint region of monodelphis domestica.

The topography and structure of corpuscular mechanoreceptors in the shoulder joint capsule and periarticular connective tissue of a small laboratory marsupial (monodelphis domestica) were studied using light and electron microscopy. This animal is known to use its upper extremities for a wide range of activities like climbing and manipulating food. Thus, the shoulder joint of this animal species has a similar wide range of movement as the human shoulder joint, but is small enough for serial sectioning in its entirety. Silver stained serial paraffin sections were examined under the light microscope and the distribution of the different types of mechanoreceptors was reconstructed using three-dimensional image processing. In addition, selected mechanoreceptors were studied electron microscopically. Approximately 100 small lamellated corpuscles were found in the dense connective tissue of the joint capsule close to the insertion on the scapula and in the thickening of the joint capsule close to the glenoid labrum. Ruffini corpuscles were found in much smaller numbers in the moderately dense connective tissue of the axillary region. Only very few Vater-Pacinian corpuscles were seen in the soft periarticular connective tissue. The large number and localization of mechanoreceptor corpuscles in the shoulder joint capsule especially close to the glenoid labrum suggests, that these specialized nerve endings are likely to play an important role in control of joint movement. They can induce protective reflexes during extreme movements in the shoulder joint preventing shoulder luxation by increasing the tone of muscles pressing the humerus head into the glenoid cavity.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

[Histopathological findings in the proprioception of the shoulder joint].

Purpose of this study was the evaluation of distribution and morphology of mechanoreceptors in the glenohumeral joint capsule and rotator cuff in comparison to the coracoacromial ligament by means of specific immunfluorescence microscopy. The complemente joint capsules, rotator cuffs and coracoacromial ligaments of three fresh cadaver shoulder were harvesed. Serial cryostate sections were taken and alternately incubated with antiserum against neurofilament, lamin or myelin of peripheral nerves. The antibody-reaction was visualized with fluorescin lg-G. The nerve endings were photographed and computer-aided 3-dimensional reconstructions were performed. Three types of corpuscular and free nerve endings of different morphology were found in different distributions: whereas the Ruffini corpuscles were much more frequent in the coracoacromial ligament and rotator cuff, Pacini endings were predominantly found in the joint capsule. Generally corpuscular nerve endings were more frequent in the coracoacromial ligament and the rotator cuff than in the antero-inferior capsule and the number of corpuscles increased from medial to lateral within the anterior and inferior parts of the capsule. The dense ligamentous tissue was almost aneural whereas the periarticular fatty or loose connective tissue contained nerve fibres and nerve endings. In view of the results of other experimental and clinical studies the high frequency of Ruffini and Pacini endings in the rotator cuff and coracoacromial ligament suggest, that both are involved in the neurosensory control of glenohumeral stability and subacromial impingement. In contrast our findings in the joint capsule do not clearly prove, that those joint receptors predominantly maintain joint stability.

Acromioclavicular Joint↗
PubMed2001

Capsular attachment to the distal radius for extracapsular placement of pins.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the anatomy of the wrist joint capsule on the distal radius. As such the extent of the joint capsule and the limits of attachment in relation to the articular surface were determined. Furthermore, the study also determined whether there was any reflection of the capsule onto the distal radius. Fifty cadaveric specimens, preserved according to Thiel's method, were assessed. After careful dissection the distance between the chondral line of the carpal articular surface and three defined points on each of the palmar and dorsal aspects of the radius were measured. In none of the specimens was there any variation in the course and extent of the joint capsule. Using external fixators for managing fractures of the distal radius, pins and wires can be placed subchondrally close to the articular capsule. The risk of intraarticular infection, due to pin tract infection in intraarticularly positioned pins, is very low.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Treatment of soft tissue injuries to the dorsum of the metacarpophalangeal joint (Boxer's knuckle).

We retrospectively reviewed the surgical treatment for 16 cases of traumatic soft tissue injury to the metacarpophalangeal joint (Boxer's knuckle). A history of trauma was present in all cases and there was an associated extensor tendon dislocation in seven cases. Eight cases were initially treated conservatively, but their symptoms persisted. Intraoperative findings included rupture of the extensor hood or joint capsule in all cases. Surgical closure of the rupture of the joint capsule resulted in a successful outcome in all cases. We consider that conservative treatment of this injury may not be effective when the joint capsule of the metacarpophalangeal joint is ruptured. We recommend arthrography of the metacarpophalangeal joint to assist in the decision as to whether to proceed with surgical or conservative treatment.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Gross anatomy of the interphalangeal joint of the great toe: implications for excision of plantar capsular accessory ossicles.

Bony or cartilaginous ossicles occur at the plantar aspect of the interphalangeal joint of the great toe. The variation in pattern, prevalence, and anatomic relationships of these structures is not clearly established in the literature, especially in a Caucasian population. Without this knowledge, pathology at this joint may be underestimated and surgical approaches may be poorly planned particularly as radiographs underestimate the incidence of ossicles at this joint. The aims of this study were to determine the incidence and pattern of ossicles at this joint and to establish their anatomic relationships to aid planning the approach for their excision. The interphalangeal joint of the left hallux was dissected in 40 British Caucasian cadavers and the pattern of nodules and their anatomic relationships were established. In 27.5% of subjects, there was no identifiable ossicle and, in these specimens, the tendon of flexor hallucis longus was adherent to the joint capsule. In the remaining specimens (72.5%), a bursa separated the tendon of flexor hallucis longus from the plantar joint capsule and nodules were found embedded within the joint capsule. More than half (52.5%) of the specimens had a single nodule located centrally within the plantar capsule and the remaining 20% had two nodules lying within the capsule. This study shows that a large proportion of the population have either one or two bony or cartilaginous ossicles at this joint. It has also shown that, when present, these structures do not lie within the tendon of flexor hallucis longus and may be most safely excised from a medial approach.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Posterior cruciate ligament recess and normal posterior capsular insertional anatomy: MR imaging of cadaveric knees.

PURPOSE: To analyze the normal pattern of fluid accumulation adjacent to the posterior cruciate ligament and anatomic variations of joint capsule insertion sites in the posterosuperior corner of the human knee by using magnetic resonance (MR) imaging in cadaveric specimens. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fourteen fresh cadaveric knees (obtained and used according to institutional guidelines, with informed consent from relatives of the deceased) from 11 men and three women (six left knees, eight right knees; age range, 70-82 years at time of death; mean age, 76 years +/- 4.4 [standard deviation]) were studied with high-spatial-resolution MR imaging performed before and after intraarticular injection of 35-45 mL gadopentetate dimeglumine. MR images were evaluated by two readers in consensus, with emphasis on location of fluid posterior to the posterior cruciate ligament, communication of that fluid with the medial or lateral compartment of the knee, and the relation of fluid to surrounding structures. Readers also were asked to measure, in the sagittal plane, the distance between the posterior capsular insertion sites and the femoral physeal scar. For anatomic analysis, cadaveric specimens were sectioned in 3-mm-thick slices in the sagittal plane that approximated the sections acquired at MR imaging. RESULTS: In all 14 cadaveric specimens, MR arthrographic images showed a fluid collection behind the posterior cruciate ligament (in the posterior cruciate ligament recess), a finding not evident on images obtained prior to contrast material injection. The recess was distended during flexion, and it communicated only with the medial femorotibial compartment in all cases. Posterior to the posterior cruciate ligament recess, a fat pad was observed in all specimens. Incomplete joint capsule was seen behind the fat pad in seven specimens. Joint capsule insertion was at the level of the femoral physeal scar or between it and a point 15 mm above it. CONCLUSION: The posterior cruciate ligament recess has specific characteristics that allow its identification: communication with the medial compartment of the knee and absence of the adjacent joint capsule.

Aged↗
PubMed1979

Characteristics of wrist joint receptors in the cat.

A branch of the dorsal interosseous nerve is described, which innervates the dorsal aspect of the wrist joint capsule of the cat. Recordings of the whole wrist joint nerve showed no tonic activity until the wrist was flexed to within 45 degrees of full flexion (about one third of the normal range). There was no tonic activity at full extension or at intermediate postions. 110 single afferents from the wrist joint capsule were isolated from dorsal root filaments. Their responses to movement of the wrist and other mechanical stimuli were examined, and their conduction velocities measured. 31 were slowly adapting, 41 were phasic, 9 were Pacinian corpuscle-like, 7 were weakly activated, and 22 were not activated by the mechanical stimuli which were used. Slowly adapting receptors responded only when the joint was in a flexed position as would be expected from the whole nerve data. Conduction velocities for the 4 classes of responding mechanoreceptors were not significantly different, and fell in the group II range. Fibre diameter histograms of myelinated axons in the wrist joint nerve showed peaks in the group II and group III range. Intravenous injection of succinylcholine showed no increase in whole nerve activity attributable to muscle spindles, and had a negligible effect on identified receptors in the wrist joint capsule.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Intrinsic innervation of the rat knee joint articular capsule and ligaments.

In spite of the practical importance of having a detailed knowledge of knee joint innervation to understand the pathophysiologic aspects, little information is now available concerning the density and pattern of the nerve fibres which are distributed to it. The present study has been designed to investigate the density and distribution of nerve fibres and receptor corpuscles in the knee joint articular capsule, cruciate and collateral ligaments in the rat, using the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) histochemical in toto staining technique. The investigation was performed on male Wistar rats of 3 months of age, some of which had been treated with capsaicin to deplete their afferent 'C' fibres of their content of neuropeptides. AChE-positive nerve fibres and different types of receptor corpuscle endings were found within articular capsule and ligaments. The highest density of AChE-positive nerve fibres was noticeable in the fibular collateral ligament followed by the tibial collateral ligament, the posterior cruciate ligament, the anterior cruciate ligament and the articular capsule. In the articular capsule the number of type I endings was higher than in the ligaments. The opposite is true for the other type of receptor corpuscles found as well as for nerve endings. Capsaicin treatment significantly reduced the density of AChE-positive nerve fibres in knee joint ligaments but did not affect nerve fibres in the articular capsule. Moreover, it caused the disappearance of some kind of receptor corpuscles within the collateral and cruciate ligaments. The above data collectively suggest that the AChE in toto staining technique may represent a good method for investigating joint innervation and that a significant percentage of nerve fibres supplying knee joint ligaments is represented by C fibre afferents.

Acetylcholinesterase↗