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PubMed1995

Further evidence for anticipation in schizophrenia.

The term 'anticipation' is used to describe the increase in disease severity or the decrease in age of onset in succeeding generations within families. This phenomenon has been related to expansion of trinucleotide repeat DNA sequences in some genetic illnesses. We examined age of onset among two generations in familial schizophrenia. Twenty-six unilineal pedigrees previously ascertained for linkage studies were used. We defined the older generation as G1 and the younger generation as G2. Cumulative survival analysis for intergenerational pairwise comparisons in groups G1 and G2 showed a significantly earlier age of onset in G2 (10 years earlier). Additional analyses, which took into account some biases such as the censoring effect of age at interview and preferential ascertainment of late-onset parents, did not modify the results. No evidence for genomic imprinting was found in our sample. We conclude that anticipation occurs in our sample of familial schizophrenia.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Unhealthy parenting and potential mediators as contributing factors to future intimate violence: a review of the literature.

Efforts to understand and prevent intimate violence have often focused on the intergenerational transmission of intimate violence. Although witnessing and/or experiencing abuse in the family of origin is well supported in the literature as a key component of the intergenerational transmission of intimate violence, there has been less attention to other family-of-origin factors that contribute to or mediate and/or moderate future intimate violence. Particularly, a focus on the effect of parenting on future intimate violence is needed beyond the effect of modeling abusive behavior. In this article, corporal punishment and poor parenting are reviewed as family-of-origin factors related to future intimate violence. In addition, attachment theory, interpersonal skills, and emotional and behavioral regulation and/or conduct disorder are reviewed as variables that may result and mediate the relationship between family-of-origin factors and future intimate violence. Implications for preventing intimate violence by intervening in the family of origin are also identified.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The effect of maternal PTSD following in utero trauma exposure on behavior and temperament in the 9-month-old infant.

UNLABELLED: In view of evidence of in utero glucocorticoid programming, and our prior observation of lower cortisol levels in 9-month-old infants of mothers with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) compared to mothers without PTSD, we undertook an examination of the effect of in utero maternal stress, as determined by PTSD symptom severity, and maternal cortisol levels on behavioral outcomes in the infant. METHODS: Ninety-eight pregnant women directly exposed to the World Trade Center (WTC) collapse on 9/11 provided salivary cortisol samples and completed a PTSD symptom questionnaire and a behavior rating scale to measure infant temperament, including distress to limitations, and response to novelty. RESULTS: Mothers who developed PTSD in response to 9/11 had lower morning and evening salivary cortisol levels, compared to mothers who did not develop PTSD. Maternal morning cortisol levels were inversely related to their rating of infant distress and response to novelty (i.e., loud noises, new foods, unfamiliar people). Also, mothers who had PTSD rated their infants as having greater distress to novelty than did mothers without PTSD (t = 2.77, df = 61, P = 0.007). CONCLUSION: Longitudinal studies are needed to determine how the association between maternal PTSD symptoms and cortisol levels and infant temperament reflect genetic and/or epigenetic mechanisms of intergenerational transmission.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Online mentoring: the promise and challenges of an emerging approach to youth development.

This paper reports on an electronic mentoring program, the Digital Heroes Campaign (DHC), in which 242 youth were matched with online mentors over a two-year period. Survey, focus group, and interview data, in addition to analyses of the e-mails that pairs exchanged, were examined in order to assess the nature, types, and quality of the relationships that were formed. Despite youths' generally positive self-reports, deep connections between mentors and mentees appeared to be relatively rare. The findings suggest that online mentoring programs face significant challenges and that further research is needed to determine under what conditions online mentoring is likely to be most effective.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Assortative mating and grandparental transmission facilitate the persistence of a sign language.

Conditions for the persistence (i.e., protection from loss) of a sign language are investigated assuming monogenic recessive inheritance of deafness, assortative mating for deafness or hearing, and cultural transmission of the sign language to deaf individuals from their deaf parents and deaf maternal grandparents. A new method is introduced to deal with the problem of grandparental transmission in which the basic variables are the frequencies of triplets comprising a mother, a father, and their daughter of permissible phenogenotypes. Usual stability analysis is then done on the system of linear recursions in the frequencies of these triplets, derived on the assumption that signers (users of the sign language) are rare. It is shown that assortative mating is the most important factor contributing to persistence, but that grandparental transmission can also have a significant effect when assortment is as strong as observed in England and the United States.

Deafness↗
PubMed2000

Intergenerational continuity of child physical abuse: how good is the evidence?

BACKGROUND: There is widespread belief that individuals who were physically abused during childhood are more likely to abuse their own children than those who were not abused, but the empirical studies examining this belief have not been systematically reviewed. The aim of this study was to evaluate systematically, based on eight methodological standards derived from a hypothetical randomised controlled trial, the design of studies investigating the intergenerational transmission of child physical abuse. METHODS: We reviewed studies published between 1965 and 2000 in English that provided information about physical maltreatment in two generations and included a comparison group. Two investigators independently assessed whether each study met the methodological standards. FINDINGS: In the ten studies identified (four cohort, one cross-sectional, and five case-control), the relative risks of maltreatment in the children of parents who were abused during childhood were significantly increased in four studies (relative risks 4.75-37.8), but in three other studies the relative risks were less than 2. Most study reports provided a clear description of abuse of parents during childhood and abuse of their children. Five studies failed to avoid recall and detection bias; five did not ensure that controls were not themselves maltreated; eight did not provide adequate follow-up; and in six the report did not state whether the enrolled parent was responsible for the maltreatment. Most studies did not control for intervening factors, such as sociodemographic characteristics during the time of abuse of the parent generation and at the time their children were abused. Only one study met all eight criteria (relative risk of abuse transmission 12.6 [95% CI 1.82-87.2]) and one met six (1.05 [0.53-2.06]). INTERPRETATION: The one study that met all eight methodological standards provided evidence for the intergenerational continuity of child physical abuse, but that which met six standards did not support the hypothesis. Use of our model and methodological standards should improve the scientific quality of studies examining the effects of risk factors for adverse outcomes that may continue across generations.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2005

Racial and ethnic differences in the relationship of caregiving stressors, resources, and sociodemographic variables to caregiver depression and perceived physical health.

Racial and ethnic differences in the association of stressors, resources, and sociodemographic characteristics with depressive symptoms and perceived physical health were investigated. Data from 653 White non-Hispanic caregivers, 278 African American, and 218 Hispanic Alzheimer's caregivers (209 males, 940 females) who were assessed at the baseline data collection of the REACH study, a multisite trial of caregiver interventions, was obtained. Multiple sample analysis, which allows testing whether a pattern of relationships is invariant across different samples, was used. Results support the hypothesis that, despite significant differences in resources and stressors, the predictors of depression and health are relatively uniform across groups. Ethnic differences were found for the effect of age, income, gender, and care receiver's self-care impairments on caregiver depression. For perceived physical health, there were ethnic differences for the effect of income, gender, and type of caregiver relationships.

Aged↗
PubMed1999

Effects of surrogate parenting on grandparents' well-being.

OBJECTIVES: This study assesses whether grandchildren's moving into or out of grandparents' households affects grandparents' depressive symptoms and life satisfaction, and whether such effects vary by gender or race. It further examines whether effects of surrogate parenting on grandparents' subjective well-being are direct or mediated through the impact of surrogate parenting on other life changes, namely, health, work hours, income, socializing, and social supports. METHODS: The analyses rely on panel data from the National Survey of Families and Households, Waves 1 and 2. The sub-sample consists of Black and White grandparents with grandchildren younger than age 18 (N = 1,789). Ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions and path analyses are used to identify direct and indirect effects of grandchildren's move into and out of grandparents' household on change in depressive symptoms and life satisfaction (residualized gain scores). RESULTS: The data indicate that grandchildren's move into the household increases depressive symptoms among grandmothers. On the other hand, grandchildren's leaving the household leads to reduced well-being among grandfathers. Grandmothers report less participation in church activities and more supports from friends and relatives after the grandchildren move in, whereas grandfathers frequent bars/taverns more when grandchildren move in and reduce time spent with church activities and paid work when grandchildren remain in the household. DISCUSSION: The findings suggest that effects of surrogate parenting differ by gender, and that they are partially contingent on grandparents' vulnerabilities (marital status, education, and presence of childless dependent children in the household) before grandchildren join the household. Mediating effects of other life changes are relatively small.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

[The effects of paternal and maternal grandmothers on mother's disciplinary behavior].

Following Tomlin and Passman (1991), this study examined whether advice of paternal and maternal grandmothers had different effects on mothers' disciplinary behavior of their children. Mothers, grandmothers, and 4-7-year-old children from 22 three-generational families participated in the study. Whenever the child made an error during a task, the reward was to be reduced. The mother decided the amount to be reduced on advice of the grandmother, who then was informed of her decision. In fact, however, the child's performance, grandmother's advice, and disciplinary decision were manipulated by the experimenter. Results showed that mothers living with paternal grandmothers modified their decision in accordance with the advice, while mothers living with maternal grandmothers did not. The mother's decision had similar effects on subsequent advice by the paternal or maternal grandmother, both of whom tended to endorse her decision. Thus, paternal and maternal grandmothers' advice had different effects on maternal disciplinary behavior of the children.

Adult↗
PubMed1981

Antecedents to contraceptive innovation: evidence from rural Northern Thailand.

A number of different causal mechanisms have been proposed to explain the onset of fertility declines in populations with previously uncontrolled fertility, but they have never been adequately tested. The present study identifies and tests five antecedents to family limitation practices in a sample of 755 currently married couples resident in rural Northern Thailand. The log-linear multiple regression models estimated indicate that couples in more developed districts, more modern couples, couples in which wives have more equal roles, couples believing that intergenerational wealth transfers favor children rather than their parents, and more wealthy couples, were all significantly more likely to be early adopters of contraception. Local development levels appeared to have the greatest net effects on the timing of adoption of fertility control. In addition, couples in areas where contraceptive services were more readily available were also significantly more likely to be contraceptive innovators, net of these five variables.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

A three-generation study: intergenerational continuities and discontinuities and their impact on the toddler's anger.

One hundred fifteen 2-year-old toddlers, one of the parents of each toddler, and the corresponding grandmother of each toddler were studied to determine the influence of the grandmother and the parent on the toddler's behavior. Findings indicated that the grandmother's parenting skills have an effect on the grandchild's anger via two pathways. More specifically, the grandmother's child-rearing techniques are mediated by the parent's personality traits, which, in turn, are associated with the parent's child-rearing practices and, ultimately, the grandchild's anger. The second pathway through which the grandmother's child-rearing is related to the grandchild's behavior involves the parent's imitation of the grandmother's parenting skills, which, in turn, are correlated with the toddler's behavior.

Anger↗
PubMed1997

Unanticipated separations and normative re-attachments in later life: a personal account.

Unanticipated separations can have profound reverberations upon individual and family development. When these separations are at a young age the consequences tend to exert a long and lasting effect. This article presents a personal account of the abrupt separation from the author's parents, the trauma the family faced in Europe on the brink of war and how this impacted his family intergenerationally. It is suggested that loyalties and caregiving are dynamics which enable adult children to emotionally reconnect with their adult parents in later life. These renewed levels of attachments are normative in nature, enriching the family as a whole.

Acculturation↗
PubMed1998

Expectations for communication with positive and negative subtypes of older adults.

The study uses a recently-developed scale for eliciting perceptions, expectations, and evaluations of intergenerational communication. As predicted, it is found that younger adults expect to experience more anxiety, receive more complaining, and receive lower levels of attunement from an older adult who is portrayed as "despondent" than one who is portrayed as a "perfect grandparent." In addition, younger adults with more negative attitudes toward older adults expect to experience more negative effect, anxiety, and communication apprehension, to feel more compassion for the older adult, and to receive lower levels of attunement and more complaining from the older adult than those with more positive attitudes. Surprisingly, younger adults with higher levels of young age identification expect to experience lower levels of apprehension, more attunement from the older adult, and to feel more compassion for the older adult than those with lower levels of age identity. These findings are discussed in terms of theoretical models of intergenerational communication, in particular the communication predicament model. In addition, younger people's feelings of having "helped" an older person are discussed in the context of intergroup theory.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

The changing moral economy of ancestor worship in a Chinese emigrant district.

This paper describes the reciprocal influences between Anxi County Fujianese, whose families and clans have migrated to Singapore, and their ancestral villages in Fujian, China. The Singaporeans bring wealth and cultural capital to their poor relations in rural China. Their participation is crucial for local socioeconomic development. Besides bringing material support and globalizing values and lifestyles, they also reinvigorate and transform the local religious tradition. They, in turn, reaffirm and even remake their own ethnic and regional identity. The complex outcome illustrates the fact that China's social change under economic reforms and global influence is, in its huge rural core, not merely a matter of infrastructural, market, and social welfare improvements, but involves exchange and transformation in meanings of rituals and experiences. We can see that kinship and religion are not unchanging aspects of the cultural tradition that are separate from programs of modernity. Indeed, modernity and tradition appear to be inseparable, and they may reveal that the recipe for effective community projects requires a vital tie between cultural, social, and interpersonal processes.

Attitude↗
PubMed1998

Intergenerational relations in urban China: proximity, contact, and help to parents.

Although most older Chinese parents live with an adult son or daughter, most adult offspring do not live with parents. We examine the relations of these noncoresident offspring with parents in terms of proximity, frequency of contact, and exchange of help. Based on a 1993 random sample survey conducted in two major Chinese cities, we find that although rates of coresidence are high, noncoresident sons and daughters live close to parents, have frequent contact with their parents, and provide regular help to parents. Relationships with noncoresident sons and daughters are unaffected by whether parents coreside with another child. There is some evidence of closer relationships with sons than with daughters, but parents without a son receive as much help from all children as do parents with sons. The effects of these and other predictors are estimated in multivariate analyses, and results are interpreted in terms of the persistence or change of traditional family norms.

China↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The experience of African American women living with HIV: creating a prevention film for teens.

The personal and social costs of HIV are well documented. What remains unknown is the effect of public disclosure of HIV status on the individual who is doing the disclosing. This study describes the experience of four African American women living with HIV who participated in the development of an intergenerational education intervention for African American adolescent girls. These women suggested that they be filmed discussing the "dark side" of HIV in an effort to create an intergenerational education intervention that would alter the risk-taking behavior that they observed in young women in their community. After a rough cut of the film was completed, these women viewed the film and participated in a focus group during which they discussed what it was like to reveal and revisit their own painful experiences associated with becoming infected and then living with HIV. Findings from content analysis of transcribed dialogue included the following positive themes: (a) self-acceptance by telling one's own story and hearing the stories of the other women, (b) a sense of liberation by disclosing publicly one's image and message and letting go of others' judgments, (c) feeling supported by meeting other women who share the same experience, (d) value of using the film to impact or save young people from the pain one has experienced. A negative theme emerged related to personal pain in reliving the individual's history with HIV.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1999

Cis-acting modifiers of expanded CAG/CTG triplet repeat expandability: associations with flanking GC content and proximity to CpG islands.

An increasing number of human genetic disorders are associated with the expansion of trinucleotide repeats. The majority of these diseases are associated with CAG/CTG expansions, including Huntington's disease, myotonic dystrophy and many of the spinocerebellar ataxias. Recently, two new expanded CAG/CTG repeats have been identified that are not associated with a phenotype. Expanded alleles at all of these loci are unstable, with frequent length changes during intergenerational transmission. However, variation in the relative levels of instability, and the size and direction of the length change mutations observed, between the CAG/CTG loci is apparent. We have quantified these differences, taking into account effects of progenitor allele length, by calculating the relative expandability of each repeat. Since the repeat motifs are the same, these differences must be a result of flanking sequence modifiers. We present data that indicate a strong correlation between the relative expandability of these repeats and the flanking GC content. Moreover, we demonstrate that the most expandable loci are all located within CpG islands. These data provide the first insights into the molecular bases of cis -acting flanking sequences modifying the relative mutability of dispersed expanded human triplet repeats.

Base Composition↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Evolutionary demography and intrahousehold time allocation: school attendance and child labor among the Okavango Delta Peoples of Botswana.

The ways in which resources are allocated within households and/or families, especially within the context of children's time allocation to labor and schooling, has long been a subject of concern to demographers and economists. Differential investment in children and resulting differences in activity budgets may have significant effects on children's growth and development as well as on aspects of reproduction. This study uses predictions regarding parental investment in the embodied capital of offspring generated by evolutionary theory to examine the pattern of children's time allocation to labor and schooling among the Okavango Delta Peoples of Botswana. Models incorporating individual costs and benefits of resource allocation, conflicts of interests between men and women and between parents and offspring, and the effects of family composition, subsistence ecology, and gender are developed and applied to data on time allocation, household demography, and household economy. Several findings emerged: (1) The availability of alternative productive tasks strongly affects intra- and intergenerational labor substitution. (2) The presence of similarly aged children of the same sex within the household decreases the likelihood of both boys and girls engaging in a specific productive activity and increases the likelihood of children's school attendance. (3) Birth order, the labor needs of the household, and parents' marital status all affect school attendance. These results have implications for understanding the determinants of children's time allocation to labor and schooling and consequent impacts on development, health, and welfare.

Adolescent↗