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PubMedDate not supplied

The healing effects of crying.

How does crying improve and enhance the emotional state? A personal, life-changing event experienced by the author helped postulate an answer to this question. This article explores tear production, crying across cultures and eras, the gender factor in tears and crying, and the author's ethnographic study of Pakistani men and women's views of crying in terms of its spiritual, cultural, and psychosomatic ramifications. Greater understanding of natural human emotions and the language of tears benefits the nursing profession and gives a better understanding of the phenomenon of crying.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Progressive scoliosis in cri-du-chat syndrome over a 20-year follow-up period: a case report.

STUDY DESIGN: A long-term follow-up study of a patient who had scoliosis associated with cri-du-chat syndrome was performed. OBJECTIVE: To describe for the first time the characteristics and natural course of progressive scoliosis in a patient with cri-du-chat syndrome. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Scoliosis is a common condition in patients with cri-du-chat syndrome. However, there are no reports on the clinical characteristics and course of this spinal deformity. METHODS: The current condition and radiographs of a 33-year-old man with cri-du-chat syndrome were assessed. The records and serial radiographs of his spine were reviewed retrospectively over a 29-year period, between ages 4 and 33 years. RESULTS: The scoliosis had started before the initial radiographic examination and progressed rapidly during the growth period. After this stage, slow but continuous progression was observed over the next 10 years. The final curvature was quite substantial, measuring 119 degrees. CONCLUSIONS: To determine the most appropriate treatment for the scoliosis associated with cri-du-chat syndrome, the characteristics and natural course of the scoliosis should be clarified. Although this first report on this type of scoliosis is informative, more cases and further studies are needed.

Cri-du-Chat Syndrome↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Infant crying patterns in Manali and London.

This study sought to assess the generalizability of the crying 'peak' previously found in Western infants at around 6 weeks of age. To this end, maternal reports and audiorecordings were used to compare the crying patterns of 2, 6 and 12-week-old infants in two cultures expected to differ in their approaches to babycare. As anticipated, Manali mothers were less inclined to leave their babies to cry, took them into their own beds more often, were more likely to be breastfeeding and breastfed their babies to an older age. In spite of these differences, both Manali and London mothers reported their babies to have an evening crying peak, most pronounced at 6 weeks, during this age-range; indicating that this is a general feature of infant development rather than a reflection of Western methods of babycare. Although the maternal reports suggested lower incidences of crying in the Manali infants, the study failed to produce convergent, tape-recorded evidence that this was the case. The definitional and methodological implications of the findings are discussed.

Cross-Cultural Comparison↗
PubMed1992

Cri du chat syndrome due to meiotic recombination in a pericentric inversion 5 carrier.

A female infant presented at birth with hypotonia, growth retardation, distinctive facies, multiple congenital anomalies, and a high-pitched mewing cry characteristic of cri du chat syndrome. Chromosome studies from both peripheral blood and fibroblasts showed a 46,XX,5p- karyotype. Parental chromosome studies revealed that the mother carried an apparently balanced pericentric inversion of one chromosome no. 5, 46,XX,inv(5)(p14q35). Meiotic crossing-over in the mother within the inverted segment of chromosome 5 gave rise to the unbalanced karyotype, 46,XX,rec(5)dup q, inv(5)(p14q35)mat in the infant. A small terminal segment of the long arm of chromosome 5 (q35-pter) is duplicated with a deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5 (p14-pter), accounting for the features of cri du chat syndrome. Fewer than 1 in 200 of cri du chat syndrome cases are due to recombination aneusomy arising from a parental inversion of chromosome 5. Some of these cases, however, do not have typical cri du chat syndrome, reflecting significant duplication of 5q material. These cases are reviewed with the present case, and recombination behaviour leading to chromosome imbalance is discussed.

Chromosome Inversion↗
PubMed1995

Do infants of depressed mothers cry more than other infants?

OBJECTIVE: This study compared the crying behaviour of infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers at 3 and 6 months of age. METHODOLOGY: Twenty-nine depressed and 44 non-depressed mothers, their infants and partners participated in this study. Mothers were asked to complete 24-hour diaries of the amount their infants cried for 1 week. RESULTS: The diurnal variations in crying patterns of infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers were not significantly different. However, infants of depressed mothers were found to cry significantly more in total per day than infants of non-depressed mothers at 3 months of age, but not at 6 months. The results could not be explained by differences in infant temperament. CONCLUSION: Maternal depression may be a contributory factor to infant crying at 3 months of age.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of antireflux medication, placebo and infant mental health intervention on persistent crying: a randomized clinical trial.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of medical antireflux treatment, and of an infant mental health consultation (IMHC), on persistent crying in infants and maternal distress. METHODS: Infants under 9 months of age with persistent crying, and their mothers, were enrolled in a randomized placebo-controlled trial. At enrollment, a questionnaire on demographic and clinical details was completed by mothers, and maternal distress was measured (Experience of Motherhood Questionnaire; EMQ). Oesophageal 24-h pH monitoring was performed in all infants on day 2. At week 4, the cry chart and EMQ were repeated in conjunction with a final interview. RESULTS: One hundred and three infants (56 under 3 months of age; 55 male) who were randomized to active medication (ranitidine plus cisapride; n = 34), placebo (n = 29) or IMHC (n = 40) completed the trial. There was a significant reduction in crying duration from baseline to week 4 (253 +/- 96.5 min vs 159 +/- 92.3 min per 24 h; P < 0.001), without differences between treatment groups (AVOVA: F = 0.75; P = 0.48). There was a modest improvement in EMQ scores from 44.9 +/- 8.6 at day 1 to 42.8 +/- 9.4 at week 4; P = 0.006. The improvement in maternal stress was similar in all treatment groups (Kruskal-Wallis chi2 = 0.354; P = 0.84), but subsequent admission to a mother-infant unit was significantly less frequent in the IMHC group (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Antireflux medications and IMHC were not superior to placebo in treating infants with persistent crying. Although the reduction in maternal distress was similar in all treatment groups, the individualized IMHC reduced the need for subsequent admission to a mother-infant unit.

Crying↗
PubMed1991

What makes Susie cry? A symptom-context study of family therapy.

The aim of this investigation was to examine the context of recurrent crying episodes during family therapy sessions. We tested the relative contribution of social versus individual intrapsychic variables within a 10-session, videotaped, structural family therapy. Segments of therapy before crying episodes when compared with control (non-crying) segments were found to have higher levels of the following variables: involvement with others in the room, rejection, and concern about supplies. Two family variables were also higher before crying episodes: family discussion about patient, and patient receives hostility. A stepwise discriminant function analysis using these variables indicated that family discussion about the patient was most important in signaling onset of crying. The results are discussed in terms of individual and family theories of symptom formation as illuminated through this case study.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Helping parents cope with infant crying.

Infant crying can be a problem because parents often receive conflicting advice about crying from relatives, friends, childrearing "experts," and health professionals. Nurses are in a unique position to counsel parents about this aspect of childrearing. Infant crying as a signal is discussed, and research related to infant crying is reviewed. Recommendations are given for nurses counseling parents about coping with infant crying.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Parental diary of infant cry and fuss behaviour.

Despite their common use parental diaries of infants' cry and fuss behaviour have not been compared with objective methods of recording. To understand what is meant by the descriptions of crying and fussing in the diaries, the diaries of 10 mothers of 6 week old infants were compared with tape recordings of vocalisations made by the babies over a 24 hour period. There were moderately strong correlations between the frequency of episodes (clusters of 'negative vocalisations') on the audiotape and episodes of 'crying and fussing' in the diaries, and between the duration of episodes on the audiotape and episodes of 'crying' in the diaries. To assess the acceptability of the diaries for recording information for clinical and epidemiological research, they were then used in a population study of a wide socioeconomic group. Usable data were obtained from 91% of the sample. The results suggest that despite pronounced differences between recording methods, these diaries may provide valid and useful reports of crying and fussing in the short term.

Child Behavior↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A sound spectrogram analysis of children's crying after painful stimuli during the first year of life.

In a prospective study we tested the hypothesis that a cry from an infant can be used as part of an instrument to measure pain. Ten healthy newly born infants were subjected to painful stimuli on four occasions during their first year of life. The sound of the crying was analysed with regard to duration. With the help of a sound spectrogram, the fundamental frequencies of the first five crying sounds were analysed. The number of crying sounds decreased with age. There was a considerable difference between the 10 children, and also between the different pricking occasions for the respective children. We conclude that if crying is to be used as part of an instrument for measuring pain, the child's age has to be taken into account.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1975

Spectrographic analysis of pain cry in neonates with cleft palate.

52 phonations of 13 cleft palate neonates were analyzed by sound spectrographic methods. 17 phonetical attributes were included in the study and the first signal after the pain stimulus was analyzed. The cries of the cleft palate infants were compared with the crying of 75 normal babies of the same age. No change in the fundamental frequency, melody type and duration of the cries was seen in association with these anatomical defects. Two of the characteristics studied, vibrato and the 'tonal pit', occurred significantly more often in cries of the cleft palate infants than in cries of the control series. The changes in the qualities seen in association with cleft palate and/or cleft lip do not mimic the abnormalities produced by brain damage.

Cleft Lip↗
PubMed1991

Quantitative analysis of neonatal intrapersonal synchrony between crying vocalization and arm movement.

Neonatal microrhythms and their intrapersonal synchrony between crying vocalization and arm movement were preliminarily researched using a newly developed quantitative analyzing methodology aimed at developing a neurological assessment index. Subjects were twelve 1- to 17-day-old full-term appropriate-for-date neonates. Significant synchronous as well as lagged relationships between crying vocalization and arm movement were revealed. It was found that at the beginning of the cry, movement preceded the cry, while there was no dominant action seen at the end of the cry. It is suggested that this methodology is important as a possible indicator of the integrity of early neural mechanisms.

Activity Cycles↗
PubMed1987

A study of crying in medically and surgically hospitalized patients.

In a prospective study of hospitalized patients referred to a psychiatry consultation service, 46 patients were referred for a presumed diagnosis of depression because crying was a prominent symptom. Psychiatric consultation determined that 20% had a psychiatric disorder only, 33% had a neurological disorder only, 43% had both psychiatric and neurological disorders, and 4% had a previously undescribed entity, "essential" crying. The most common neurological disorder in these crying patients was bilateral hemispheric dysfunction associated with dementia or delirium; the most common psychiatric disorder was major depression. Effective therapy for patients who cry depends on proper identification of the cause of crying.

Crying↗
PubMed2000

Crying abnormalities in congenital hypothyroidism: preliminary spectrographic study.

The aim of this preliminary study was to evaluate the acoustic patterns of the cries of hypothyroid newborns at the time of diagnosis and after the beginning of therapy. Cries were recorded at the nursery of the San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy from 12 full-term subjects (three boys and nine girls) affected by congenital hypothyroidism. Results show that untreated hypothyroid infants at first recording had fewer voiceless and partially voiced cries than normal controls. The percent distribution of this pattern did not change at the second recording after the onset of substitutive therapy. Also, untreated hypothyroid infants had many more cry units showing a vibrato contour than did controls, and this pattern did not change after the onset of treatment. Starting, maximum, minimum, and end frequencies measured on the fundamental were significantly lower in the hypothyroid sample. Four hypothyroid subjects recorded before therapy and within 4 weeks after therapy onset significantly augmented their fundamental frequency parameters; however, in 25% of the sample, sound parameters remained unaltered after 3 or more weeks of treatment. To our knowledge the present preliminary study is the first one performed on follow-up of hypothyroid newborns and indicates that both central and peripheral damage might influence the pattern of crying in untreated hypothyroid infants.

Congenital Hypothyroidism↗
PubMed1998

Newborns crying in different contexts: discrete or graded signals?

The aim of this study was to investigate whether human infants' cries show individually and contextually discriminable acoustic parameters. 20 full-term normal human newborns (aged 1 to 4 days) had their cries recorded during routine blood withdrawal (pain context) 30 min. before a scheduled feeding (hunger context) and when subjected to kinetic stimuli during neurological examination (manipulation context). Type of cries, melodic contours, F0 parameters, but not the "macro" trend of the start of the fundamental frequency, indicated a difference in pain cries in the other two contexts. All the acoustic features considered showed an individual specificity. The peak frequencies of voiceless or partially voiced wails had the interesting property of being optimised as long distance signals. We hypothesised that this feature of infants' cries may have evolved in a time window when the infants were left in collective nurseries and not carried on the mothers' backs as maintained by the traditional view.

Acoustics↗
PubMed2004

1. Problem crying in infancy.

Up to 20% of parents report a problem with infant crying or irritability in the first 3 months of life. Crying usually peaks at 6 weeks and abates by 12-16 weeks. For most irritable infants, there is no underlying medical cause. In a minority, the cause is cow's milk and other food allergy. Only if frequent vomiting (about five times a day) occurs is gastro-oesophageal reflux a likely cause. It is important to assess the mother-infant relationship and maternal fatigue, anxiety and depression. Management of excessive crying includes: explaining babies' normal crying and sleeping patterns; helping parents help their baby deal with discomfort and distress through a baby-centred approach; helping parents recognise when their baby is tired and apply a consistent approach to settling their baby; encouraging parents to accept help from friends and family, and to simplify household tasks. If they are unable to manage their baby's crying, admission to a parenting centre (day stay or overnight stay) or local hospital should be arranged.

Algorithms↗
PubMed2000

[Cri-du-chat syndrome. A case report].

We report a documented case in Senegal with cri-du-chat syndrome diagnosed in a 3 months old girl. Our patient benefited from clinical examination, ECG (15 derivations), chest X ray and standard laboratory tests. The cry has been recorded on a magnetic band. We performed also a pulsed-Doppler, two dimensional and TM echocardiography. Chromosomal analysis has been realized. These data are discussed and compared to the literature. At admission this patient presents characteristic cat like cry. At examination, there is a facial dysmorphy, important growth retardation and feeding dyspnea. Auscultation shows a 3/6 left sub-clavicular systolic murmur. Laboratory tests show anemia (hemoglobin = 7.8 g/dl). Chest x-ray showed a cardio-thoracic ratio at 0.61 with increased pulmonary vascular markings. ECG showed right ventricular hypertrophy. Echocardiography-Doppler revealed persistent ductus arteriosus (PDA). Chromosomal analysis shows deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5. After treatment with digitalis and diuretics there was an improvement of cardiac failure. Diagnosis of cri-du-chat syndrome is easy when characteristic cat-like-cry is present. Cardiovascular abnormalities are unfrequent in this syndrome (20% of the cases). They are dominated by ventricular septal defect and PDA. Hemodynamic failure and related growth retardation can lead to cardiac surgery.

Abnormalities, Multiple↗
PubMed1992

The crying of infants with colic: a controlled empirical description.

To obtain a controlled empirical description of some of the measurable clinical features of colic in a naturalistic context, 38 infants whose mothers considered crying a problem ("colic") and 38 pair-matched control infants were observed and videotaped at home 10 minutes before and after an evening feed. The parents kept a diary of infant behaviors (including crying and fussing) for 7 days following the visit. Following Wessel et al (Pediatrics. 1954;14:421-434), each "colic" infant was classified according to the number of days per week that crying and fussing duration was greater than 3 h/d. The distribution of infants with colic suggested that there were two subgroups: Wessel's colic infants, with 3 days or more per week of more than 3 hours of crying and fussing per day; and non-Wessel's colic infants, with fewer such days. Maternal measures of total daily crying/fussing duration, crying/fussing bout length, and infant temperament and objective analyses of facial activity showed a consistent pattern of differences in which Wessel's colic infants differed from both non-Wessel's colic and control infants, who in turn did not differ from each other. Both colic groups differed from control infants only in the perception of postfeed cries as being more "sick sounding." The results imply that the complaint of colic represents two (or more) groups and that there may be meaningfully distinct colic syndromes. They also provide the first independent empirical support for Wessel and colleagues' clinical distinction between "fussy" and "contented" babies.

Colic↗