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[Sports in childhood from a medical-psychological-pedagogical viewpoint].
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Effects of pre-natal and continued lead exposure on activity levels in the mouse.
Binghamton heterogeneous (HET) stock mice were exposed to 0.5% lead acetate solution from conception through adulthood. Activity was measured in an open field, shuttle-box, and the home cage. Independent groups of animals were tested at several ages in the light (day) and dark (night). Despite significant blood-lead level differences between the control and lead treated animals, developmental and activity differences between groups were restricted to selected measures. The lead-treatment appeared to alter only jumping in the open field and some consummatory behaviors observed in the home cage. This research does not provide support for a model which proposes a simple, direct relationship between low-level lead toxicity and hyperactive behavior. It is suggested that future research focus on the specific conditions under which activity is measured. Animal parallels to a human "hyperactive disorder" may need to be reformulated in terms of attention deficits which mark the childhood disorder.
A semi-Markovian model for predator-prey interactions.
In the study of population dynamics, the predator-prey system is recognized as a vitally important aspect in natural population control. On aspect of predator-prey interactions is studied in this paper. The attack cycle of a predator is assumed to consist of four different activities, namely, search, pursuit, handle and eat, and digestion. A semi-Markovian model is proposed to obtain the number of prey devoured by a predator during the activity of a day. The advantages of a new semi-Markovian model to the queueing model developed by Curry and DeMichele (1977) is demonstrated, as the results from the semi-Markovian model are closer to Holling's (1966) experimental data than their results, which were based entirely on Poisson assumptions.
Effects of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine lesions of the prefrontal cortex on consumption of sucrose-ethanol solutions: relationship to prefrontal monoamines.
Thirty adult male Wistar rats received 8 micrograms bilaterally of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine into the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Rats were then trained, via a sucrose, fading paradigm, to consume increasing concentrations of alcohol. After death, dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE), serotonin (5-HT), and their metabolites were measured in the mPFC, nucleus accumbens (NA), and raphe nucleus. The lesioned group demonstrated a reduction in 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), DA, and NE in the mPFC (p < 0.05), and a trend toward reduction of 5-HT in the NA. In comparison with controls, lesioned animals consumed less of all solutions containing sucrose and alcohol. On regression analyses, monoamines in the mPFC (i.e., 5-HIAA, dihydrophenylacetic acid and NE) predicted consumption of the 5% ethanol solution (p = 0.009), 10% ethanol solution (p = 0.0006), and the 5% sucrose solutions (p = 0.0006), but not the 20% sucrose solutions. In each case, monoamine levels were positively correlated with consumption. No relationships were seen between monoamine levels in the NA and raphe, and in consummatory behavior.
Neuropeptide Y levels in ethanol-naive alcohol-preferring and nonpreferring rats and in Wistar rats after ethanol exposure.
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a hexatriacontapeptide amide that is now well characterized as a neuromodulator in the central nervous system (CNS). When infused into the CNS, NPY produces both anxiolytic and orexigenic effects. NPY's anxiolytic effects appear to be mediated through receptors in the central amygdala, whereas its orexigenic effects are localized in discrete hypothalamic nuclei. Both food restriction and food deprivation produce increased levels of the peptide in the hypothalamus that are ameliorated by refeeding. However, the effects of alcohol consumption/deprivation on NPY levels remain unknown. The present study sought to determine if brain NPY levels were affected by either alcohol exposure and/or correlated with genetic differences in preference for drinking alcohol. In the first experiment, NPY-like immunoreactivity (NPY-LI) was compared in alcohol-naive, alcohol-preferring (P), and nonpreferring (NP) rats. After tissue extraction, NPY-LI was measured by radioimmunoassay: amygdala, hippocampus, frontal cortex, hypothalamus, and caudate. P rats were found to have significantly lower NPY-LI in amygdala (F = 4.69, p < 0.04), hippocampus (F = 7.03, p < 0.01), and frontal cortex (F = 4.7, p < 0.04), compared with NP rats. In the second experiment, heterozygous Wistar rats were exposed to alcohol for 14 hr/day for 7 weeks in alcohol vapor chambers (mean blood alcohol concentrations = 180 mg%) or control chambers. At 7 weeks of alcohol exposure, no significant changes in NPY-LI in were found. At 1 month after ethanol withdrawal, however, the ethanol-exposed animals had significantly higher NPY-LI in the hypothalamus (F = 4.78, p < 0.04) when compared with the nonexposed controls. Taken together, these studies suggest that exposure to chronic ethanol may affect NPY-LI at the level of the hypothalamus in a fashion similar to food restriction, because 4 weeks after alcohol withdrawal, significantly higher NPY levels are found. In addition, differences in NPY-LI in limbic areas and frontal cortex between alcohol-naive P and NP rats suggest that NPY may also play a role in risk for the development of alcohol preference either by modulating the "tension-reduction" properties of alcohol or by influencing consummatory behaviors.
Appetitive and consummatory male sexual behavior in Japanese quail are differentially regulated by subregions of the preoptic medial nucleus.
Central testosterone aromatization is required for the activation of both appetitive (ASB) and consummatory (CSB) male sexual behavior in Japanese quail. There are two major clusters of aromatase immunoreactive (ARO-ir) cells in the rostral forebrain; these outline the nucleus preopticus medialis (POM) and the nucleus striae terminalis (BST). We investigated the role of these nuclei in the regulation of ASB and CSB. Appetitive male sexual behavior was measured with the use of a learned social proximity procedure that quantified the time spent by a male in front of a window with a view of a female who was subsequently released into the cage, providing an opportunity for CSB. Males first acquired the response and then received bilateral electrolytic lesions aimed at the POM or BST, followed by retesting for ASB and CSB. Brain sections were stained for ARO-ir, and lesions to the two ARO-ir cell groups were quantitatively characterized. Lesions damaging the POM completely abolished CSB and also significantly decreased ASB. Lesions of the rostral BST had no effect on ASB, but moderately decreased CSB. Detailed anatomical analysis revealed that lesions of a subdivision of the POM just rostral to the anterior commissure specifically impair CSB, whereas lesions that are more rostral to this subdivision induce a severe deficit in ASB. These data indicate that different subregions of the POM regulate ASB and CSB in a somewhat independent manner, whereas the BST is only important in the regulation of CSB.
Dopaminergic modulation of visual responses in toads. I. Apomorphine-induced effects on visually directed appetitive and consummatory prey-catching behavior.
This study confirms for a phylogenetically basal terrestrial vertebrate that dopaminergic modulations interfere with the visually directed appetitive and consummatory feeding behaviors orienting and snapping, respectively. (1) In common toads Bufo bufo, intralymphatic administration of the dopamine D2/D1-receptor agonist apomorphine led to a dose-dependent facilitation of prey-snapping in response to moving objects. The snapping activity reached a maximum 15-35 min after apomorphine injection. (2) To changes in configurational stimulus features, the basic pattern of discrimination was maintained; however, the acuity of discrimination was reduced due to the high snapping response level. (3) The apomorphine-induced facilitation of snapping was accompanied by a suppression of prey-oriented lunging and turning. Toads snapped only if prey occurred frontally in the visual field at a relatively short distance. The snapping behavior was fixed in its form and stereotyped regarding its immediate release. (4) About 90 min after apomorphine administration, prey-oriented turning behavior was restored and displayed a facilitatory rebound. (5) In comparative experiments with the species B. marinus, both prey-oriented turning and snapping responses were suppressed by apomorphine in a dose-dependent manner. (6) After pre-treatment with the dopamine antagonist haloperidol, apomorphine showed no measurable effect on the visual release of prey orienting or snapping. (7) The results contribute to the sensorimotor and the motivation hypothesis of dopamine function proposed for higher vertebrates and stimulate a comparative discussion of anatomic homologies and functional analogies.
[Peripheral control of the feeding behavior of fresh water mollusks].
Appetitive and consummatory feeding behavior was shown to be initiated by stimulation of different loci. Feeding programs were different in their motor output frequency in P. corneus and L. stagnalis stagnalis. The maintenance of the feeding program was provided by sensory input. In contrast to the insect flight generator, the feeding neuronal program had no peripheral regulation system in freshwater snails, its feeding program being more autonomic from peripheral influences than the flight motor program in insects.
Up or down: the influence of upcoming reinforcement on consummatory and operant behavior.
Research has shown that animal subjects that are given a chance to consume a low-valued substance will consume less of it if a high-valued substance will soon be available than they would if the low-valued substance were to remain available (negative consummatory contrast). Research has also shown that subjects that lever press for a low-valued reinforcer will press the lever more often for that reinforcer if they will soon be able to lever press for a high-valued reinforcer than they would if they continue to press for the low-valued reinforcer (positive induction). The present study investigated these different changes in behavior across 3 experiments. The results suggest that the occurrence of contrast or induction does not depend on the type of substances that are used. We argue that further investigation of the contrast vs. induction issue is warranted because it has empirical, theoretical, and applied implications.
A correlational and factor analysis of anticipatory and consummatory measures of sexual behavior in the male rat.
This study investigated the relationship among measures of anticipatory and consummatory sexual behavior displayed by male rats in the bilevel chambers designed by Mendelson and Gorzalka (1987). Normative data from a standard test of sexual behavior were gathered from 80 intact, sexually experienced male Long-Evans rats and subjected to multiple correlational and factor analyses. The correlational analysis confirmed that several consummatory measures of copulation were related significantly, whereas the anticipatory measure, level changing, was statistically independent of consummatory measures. Factor analysis using orthogonal rotations revealed five factors that accounted for 95% of the intersubject variance for all measures: Copulatory Rate, Initiation, Hit Rate, Mount Count, and Anticipation. These results indicate that at least five conceptual mechanisms are required in any theoretical description of male sexual behavior in the bilevel chamber. In particular, the extraction of separate anticipation and initiation factors indicates that these aspects of male sexual behavior are distinct. The use of bilevel chambers thus may facilitate the identification of potential neurochemical or endocrine mechanisms associated with different aspects of male sexual motivation. In addition, several statistical techniques are discussed with the aim of reducing the elevated experiment-wise error that can occur when related measures of sexual behavior are analyzed independently.
The role of a modulatory neuron in feeding and satiation in Aplysia: effects of lesioning of the serotonergic metacerebral cells.
Food-induced arousal in Aplysia is characterized by a progressive increase in the speed and strength of biting responses elicited by a seaweed stimulus. Data from semi-intact and dissected preparations suggest that the identified, serotonergic, metacerebral cells (MCCs) of the cerebral ganglion contribute to food-induced arousal by enhancing the strength of buccal muscle contractions, and by modulating the output of the central pattern generator for biting movements. In order to test this hypothesis in intact, free-moving animals and to determine if the MCCs play a role in satiation of feeding, the behavior of animals that had their MCCs destroyed by intracellular injection of proteases was compared with that of B Cell-Lesion and Dye injection control animals (Experiment 1) or surgical control animals (Experiment 2). Nonfeeding behaviors such as defensive withdrawal responses, locomotion, and righting reflexes were unaffected by MCC lesioning. Also unaffected by MCC lesioning were appetitive feeding behaviors and the amount of food needed to satiate animals. Significant behavioral deficits in consummatory feeding behaviors, which remained stable for periods exceeding 10 d, were observed in the MCC-lesioned animals but not in controls. Lesioned animals exhibited a slowing of rate of repetitive biting responses by 40% of controls and had reduced magnitudes of repetitive bites, particularly at the end of a testing run of 10 consecutive bites. The deficit in bite magnitude was minimally evident in food-deprived animals (Experiment 1) but became more pronounced as animals were fed to satiation (Experiment 2). MCC-lesioned animals still exhibited a residual build-up of the rate and magnitude of biting responses at the onset of feeding behavior. This suggests that, in addition to the MCCs, there are other sources of modulation that contribute to plasticity of consummatory responses during the food-induced arousal state.
EFFECTS OF CONSUMMATORY RESPONSE PUNISHMENT ON CONSUMMATORY AND RUNWAY BEHAVIOR.
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CCK-8 inhibits ingestive behavior in rats with lateral hypothalamic 6-OHDA lesions.
Male rats were injected with 6-hydroxydopamine in the lateral hypothalamus and tested for ingestive behavior starting on the day after the injection. The rats did not eat food pellets but readily ingested an intraorally infused nutritive solution. If given three daily intraoral infusions, 6-hydroxydopamine-treated rats defended their body weight and were as sensitive to the inhibitory effect of cholecystokinin octapeptide on intake as controls. Dopamine was reduced by 94% in the dorsal striatum five days after the 6-hydroxydopamine injection. Noradrenaline and serotonin were less markedly affected. Thus, while appetitive ingestive behavior is disrupted, consummatory ingestive behavior and body weight regulatory competence are only marginally affected by massive damage to forebrain dopamine neural networks.
Role of aromatization in anticipatory and consummatory aspects of sexual behavior in male rats.
The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that aromatization is involved in the maintenance by testosterone of the appetitive component of male sexual behavior. We measured appetitive sexual behavior by administering behavioral tests in bilevel chambers and quantifying anticipatory level changes during a 5-min period prior to introduction of a stimulus female. In addition, we recorded standard measures of consummatory male sexual behavior after the female was introduced. Following 3 weekly tests, level-changing behavior reached a plateau and remained stable for up to 10 weeks. After 10 bilevel tests, rats were given subcutaneous testosterone capsules to clamp circulating androgen at physiological levels. Rats were tested and divided into two groups that were matched for measures of sexual behavior. One group was then treated with the nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor, Fadrozole (2.5 mg/kg/day), given subcutaneously in beta-cyclodextrin and the other group was treated with vehicle. Within 1 week of Fadrozole treatment, the number of anticipatory levels changes was significantly reduced, but not the latency to begin searching. Fadrozole treatment also significantly reduced all measures of copulatory behavior over the period of treatment and increased latencies to first mount, intromission, and ejaculation. After 8 weeks, both treatment groups were given an additional Silastic capsule filled with estradiol and tested for 4 additional weeks. Estrogen treatment partially restored level-changing behavior, mounts, and intromissions but had little effect on ejaculations. These results support the view that aromatization is important for maintaining both the appetitive and the consummatory aspects of sexual behavior in male rats.
Role of dopamine in anticipatory and consummatory aspects of sexual behavior in the male rat.
The ability of dopamine (DA) receptor antagonists to disrupt anticipatory and consummatory measures of sexual behavior displayed by male rats in bilevel chambers was investigated. In Experiment 1, systemic administration of haloperidol, pimozide, and the D1 antagonist SCH 23390 reduced the number of anticipatory level changes (LC) displayed during a 5-min period before the introduction of a sexually receptive female, increased the mount and intromission latencies (ML and IL), and decreased the number of intromissions before ejaculation (NI) and the total number of ejaculations (NE). The dosages of these drugs required to reduce the LC were lower than those required to increase the ML or IL. Clozapine and the D2 antagonist sulpiride reduced the LC and increased the IL at comparable dosages, although neither drug affected the NI or NE. High dosages of haloperidol, pimozide, and clozapine delayed or abolished level changing and the initiation of copulation. In Experiment 2, bilateral infusions of haloperidol into the nucleus accumbens reduced the LC but did not affect consummatory measures of copulation, whereas bilateral infusions into the dorsal striatum increased the NE. Midline infusions of haloperidol to the medial preoptic area (MPOA) produced nearly all the effects of systemic administration, including a reduced LC, increased ML and IL, a decreased NI, and a decreased NE. These results indicate that both anticipatory and consummatory measures of sexual behavior were disrupted by DA receptor antagonists; however, the measure of anticipatory sexual behavior was more sensitive to disruption than consummatory measures of copulation. DA in the nucleus accumbens and MPOA may be involved in the control of anticipatory sexual behavior, whereas in the MPOA it may also be involved in the initiation of copulation and copulatory rate.
Neonatal amygdala lesions affect appetitive motivational and consummatory aspects of social behavior in the rat.
In the present study, rats received amygdala lesions (AMX) on either Postnatal Day 7 (PD 7; immature brain) or PD 21 (almost mature brain), and adult social activity was studied after short-term isolation housing. Sham-operated rats demonstrated increased following and approaching behavior after 7 days of isolation compared with after 4 days of isolation, an effect that was absent in AMX-PD 7 and AMX-PD 21 rats. Furthermore, AMX-PD 7 rats, but not AMX-PD 21 rats, displayed a reduction in investigatory behavior after prolonged isolation. This indicates that in AMX-PD 21 rats, mainly appetitive motivational aspects of social behavior were affected, whereas in AMX-PD 7 rats both motivational and consummatory aspects were disturbed. Finally, the reported deficits in AMX-PD 7 rats may reflect neurodevelopmental deficits of structures connected with the amygdala.
The Japanese quail as a model system for the investigation of steroid-catecholamine interactions mediating appetitive and consummatory aspects of male sexual behavior.
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