PubMed2026
BACKGROUND: Low-temperature stress is a formidable environmental constraint that severely limits the growth and productivity of maize (Zea mays L.), particularly during the highly vulnerable early seedling stage. While cold tolerance is a critical agronomic objective, the integrated transcriptional and epigenetic regulatory mechanisms that govern this trait remain largely elusive. Characterizing these coordinated molecular networks is fundamental to the genetic enhancement of cold resilience in maize. METHODS: Using two maize inbred lines contrasting in chilling response (ZHB12 tolerant, B73 sensitive), we performed integrative time‑course RNA‑seq and ATAC‑seq to thoroughly and systematically characterize the precise dynamic interplay between gene expression and chromatin accessibility under cold stress conditions at the seedling stage. RESULTS: Physiological assessments confirmed that ZHB12 possesses superior cold tolerance, manifested by significantly attenuated electrolyte leakage and reduced foliar damage compared to B73. Transcriptomic profiling revealed a massive, time-dependent divergence in gene expression between the two genotypes, with a major regulatory transition identified at 24 h of cold exposure. Functional enrichment analysis demonstrated that ZHB12 preferentially activates a robust defense repertoire, including Photosystem II electron transport, diterpenoid biosynthesis, and ATP biosynthetic pathways. Notably, multiple ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter genes were coordinately upregulated under chilling, suggesting their potential involvement in cellular homeostasis. ATAC-seq analysis indicated that cold stress is associated with chromatin remodeling in ZHB12, with increased accessibility observed in proximal promoter regions. Integrative analysis identified a core set of dual-responsive genes, in which increased promoter accessibility coincided with transcriptional upregulation. These genes were predominantly enriched in transporter activity and transcriptional regulation, suggesting potential epigenetic link to the superior stress response of ZHB12. CONCLUSION: Our findings reveal extensive transcriptional and chromatin accessibility changes in ZHB12 under cold stress. The observed associations between promoter accessibility and gene activation, particularly in genes involved in transport processes, highlight candidate regulators potentially contributing to cold tolerance. This study provides a molecular framework and identifies high-value candidate genes that may inform future efforts in breeding cold-tolerant maize, pending functional validation.