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PubMed1993

Seabather's eruption.

BACKGROUND: Seabather's eruption is an annoying pruritic dermatitis that appears on the areas covered by the bathing suit as an erythematous macular or papular dermatitis, with or without urticaria. It occurs sporadically in Florida, the Caribbean, and as far north as Bermuda. The cause is not known. METHODS: We collected information in Nassau County, Long Island, New York, about cases of all types of water-related dermatitis reported by beach personnel, health providers, and affected swimmers from 1970 through 1991. Concurrently, we surveyed all Nassau County swimming waters, especially during the summer season (June through September), for the presence of organisms capable of causing dermatitis. In 1980 a sudden epidemic of a severe, unfamiliar dermatitis in ocean bathers prompted increased surveillance of cases and waters. Planula larvae of the phylum Cnidaria were collected from the ocean and beaches and inside bathing suits. They were examined, photographed, tested on healthy subjects, and observed in the laboratory for metamorphosis. RESULTS: Three outbreaks of seabather's eruption have occurred on Long Island since 1975. The first, in August 1975, affected a small number of swimmers on the eastern end of Long Island. In 1980 there were thousands of cases along the entire south shore of the island, and in 1990 there were hundreds in the same area. In nonepidemic years, five or fewer cases have been reported yearly. Surveillance for larvae revealed them to be present during the swimming season in epidemic years, but in nonepidemic years they did not appear until autumn, after the swimming season. Applying larvae to the skin of healthy subjects produced a dermatitis indistinguishable from seabather's eruption. All larvae metamorphosed in the laboratory to the adult sea anemone Edwardsiella lineata. CONCLUSIONS: Seabather's eruption, previously reported only as sporadic cases in southern climates, has occurred sporadically and in outbreaks 1000 miles north of most previously described cases. These Long Island episodes were probably caused by the planula larvae of E. lineata.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Bipolaroxin, a selective phytotoxin produced by Bipolaris cynodontis.

Two sesquiterpenes have been isolated from the fungal pathogen of Bermuda grass Bipolaris cynodontis. Chemical, spectral, and x-ray diffraction studies have led to the characterization of these as bipolaroxin and dihydrobipolaroxin, highly oxygenated members of the eremophilane family. Bipolaroxin is phytotoxic to some but not all of the plants tested. To our knowledge, a phytotoxin with host selectivity isolated from a weed pathogen has not been reported previously.

Fungi↗
PubMed1997

Characteristics of the deep ocean carbon system during the past 150,000 years: SigmaCO2 distributions, deep water flow patterns, and abrupt climate change.

Studies of carbon isotopes and cadmium in bottom-dwelling foraminifera from ocean sediment cores have advanced our knowledge of ocean chemical distributions during the late Pleistocene. Last Glacial Maximum data are consistent with a persistent high-SigmaCO2 state for eastern Pacific deep water. Both tracers indicate that the mid-depth North and tropical Atlantic Ocean almost always has lower SigmaCO2 levels than those in the Pacific. Upper waters of the Last Glacial Maximum Atlantic are more SigmaCO2-depleted and deep waters are SigmaCO2-enriched compared with the waters of the present. In the northern Indian Ocean, delta13C and Cd data are consistent with upper water SigmaCO2 depletion relative to the present. There is no evident proximate source of this SigmaCO2-depleted water, so I suggest that SigmaCO2-depleted North Atlantic intermediate/deep water turns northward around the southern tip of Africa and moves toward the equator as a western boundary current. At long periods (>15,000 years), Milankovitch cycle variability is evident in paleochemical time series. But rapid millennial-scale variability can be seen in cores from high accumulation rate series. Atlantic deep water chemical properties are seen to change in as little as a few hundred years or less. An extraordinary new 52.7-m-long core from the Bermuda Rise contains a faithful record of climate variability with century-scale resolution. Sediment composition can be linked in detail with the isotope stage 3 interstadials recorded in Greenland ice cores. This new record shows at least 12 major climate fluctuations within marine isotope stage 5 (about 70,000-130,000 years before the present).

Journal Article↗
PubMed1997

Immunological and biological properties of Bet v 4, a novel birch pollen allergen with two EF-hand calcium-binding domains.

We have isolated a cDNA clone coding for a birch pollen allergen, Bet v 4. The deduced amino acid sequence of Bet v 4 contained two typical EF-hand calcium-binding domains. Sequence similarities of Bet v 4 to calmodulin are primarily confined to the calcium-binding domains. However, significant sequence similarities extending outside the Ca2+-binding sites were found with a recently described group of pollen-specific allergens of Brassica and Bermuda grass. Both EF-hand domains of Bet v 4 are able to bind Ca2+, as demonstrated by 45Ca2+ blot overlay of wild type and calcium-binding deficient mutants of Bet v 4. Among pollen-allergic patients, protein-bound Ca2+ was not an absolute requirement for IgE recognition of Bet v 4. However, disruption of the carboxyl-terminal Ca2+-binding domain indicated that most IgE antibodies from allergic patients are directed against this site. IgE inhibition experiments suggested that Bet v 4 represents a highly cross-reactive pollen allergen. Pre-absorption of allergic sera with Bet v 4 drastically reduced IgE binding to proteins of similar molecular weight in pollen extracts from distantly related plant species (e.g. timothy grass, mugwort, lily) but not in extracts from plant-derived foodstuff. To test for a possible biological role in pollen germination and tube growth, we introduced recombinant Bet v 4 protein into growing lily pollen tubes by iontophoresis. As a result, cytoplasmic streaming stopped in the vicinity of the electrode tip, and a slight depolarization of the membrane voltage was measured. These effects were not observed with Ca2+-binding deficient mutants of Bet v 4. Thus, Bet v 4 and homologous proteins represent a new class of pollen-specific Ca2+-binding allergens that may have a physiological role as inhibitors of cytoplasmic streaming in outgrowing pollen tubes.

Allergens↗
PubMed2003

Croceibacter atlanticus gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel marine bacterium in the family Flavobacteriaceae.

A bright, saffron-colored marine bacterium HTCC2559T was isolated from the Bermuda Atlantic Time Series station in the western Sargasso Sea, Atlantic Ocean by high throughput culturing methods and characterized by polyphasic approaches. Phenotypic data and phylogenetic analyses showed that the strain is a member of the family Flavobacteriaceae. The strain was gram-negative, non-motile, chemoheterotrophic, strictly aerobic, NaCl-requiring, rod-shaped cells that contain carotenoid pigments but not flexirubin. Several kinds of macromolecules (gelatin, DNA, starch, casein, and elastin) were degraded and carbohydrates, sugar alcohols, organic acids, and amino acids were utilized as sole carbon sources. The dominant fatty acids were branched or hydroxy acids, and 3-OH i17:0, i15:0, i15:1, and i17:1 omega9c were abundant. The DNA G+C content of the strain is 34.8 mol%. Phylogenetic analyses using three treeing algorithms based on 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that the strain formed a very distinct lineage that is allied closely with several seawater environmental clones in the family Flavobacteriaceae. Therefore, it is proposed from the polyphasic studies that strain HTCC2559T (=ATCC BAA-628T = KCTC 12090T) belongs to a new genus and species named Croceibacter atlanticus gen. nov., sp. nov.

Biodegradation, Environmental↗
PubMed1985

[Use of sugar cane harvest residues in cattle fattening in the Republic of Cuba. 1. The physical and chemical composition of the residues and the effect of NaOH treatment on their in vitro and in vivo digestibility].

The harvesting remains of sugar cane (crowns, leaves, sheaths, parts of stalks), which are rich in crude fibre, were investigated. The content of crude nutrients, their digestibility and the energy concentration of the harvesting remains largely correspond to the values of cereal straw. After the treatment with growing amounts of NaOH (0, 4, 6, 8, 10 g/ 100 g DM) a significantly increasing digestibility of the dry matter (31.9, 47.0, 56.1, 61.9, 67.6%) was ascertained in in-vitro experiments. In digestibility experiments with wethers an increased digestibility of the dry matter from 36.6 to 57.6% and of the energy from 39.3 to 56.2% after the treatment with 4 g NaOH/100 g DM could be ascertained in comparison with untreated harvesting remains. Energy concentration increased from 324 to 445 EFU cattle/kg DM and thus approached that of the hay of Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), one of the most important fodder grasses of Cuba. After the feeding of harvesting remains treated with NaOH significant changes in the water and mineral metabolism could be ascertained.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1983

Serum concentrations of allergen-specific IgG antibodies in inhalant allergy: effect of specific immunotherapy.

The occurrence of antibodies belonging to IgG class of immunoglobulins with specificity for short ragweed and Bermuda grass in the sera of nonatopic subjects and patients with inhalant allergy (at the time of initial diagnosis, following specific immunotherapy was investigated with an enzyme immunoassay. The intra-assay and inter-assay coefficients of variation for this assay ranged from 1.74%-4.62% and 3.18%-9.12%, respectively. IgG antibodies were found in the sera of the majority of nonatopic and all of atopic subjects. The differences in the concentration of these antibodies between these three groups were statistically significant (P less than 0.001). Specific immunotherapy resulted in a rise in the serum levels of allergen-specific IgG antibodies and, following an initial period of modest increase, a decrease in the level of allergen-specific IgE antibodies. Specific IgG response correlated with both the cumulative antigen dose and the clinical benefit that accrued from specific immunotherapy (P less than 0.001). The increase in the serum concentration of specific IgG was most pronounced in patients with high RAST scores at the time of initial diagnosis (P less than 0.001). The concentrations of short-ragweed specific IgG antibodies assayed with multiple samples in three patients with ragweed hay fever appeared not to be affected by the short-ragweed season to any significant degree. We conclude that direct enzyme immunoassay for allergen-specific IgE and IgG antibodies are useful in vitro monitors of immunologic responses to specific immunotherapy for inhalant allergy.

Allergens↗
PubMed1984

A computerized micro-ELISA assay for allergen-specific IgE antibodies.

A computer-normalized micro-ELISA assay employing horseradish peroxidase and polystyrene microtiter plates (IP assay) for allergen-specific IgE antibodies is described. The specificity of the assay was confirmed by heat inactivation and multiple absorption experiments. Individual allergen blanks were used to account for the variability in the nonspecific binding among various allergens. The results obtained in milliunits of absorbance were normalized by a computer protocol using four reference sera. The coefficients of variation for the intraassay and interassay reproducibility ranged from 1.49 to 9.33% and 7.11 to 15.19%, respectively. Direct correlations between the results of the IP and the RAST assays (Absorbance vs. bound radioactivity) were excellent; the values for correlation coefficients for six pollens (June grass, Bermuda grass, Short ragweed, English plantain, Oak and Box elder), house dust mite, and two epidermal (cat and dog) allergens ranged from 0.88 to 0.99. Correlation between the two assays was lacking for the Alternaria and Penicillium mold allergens (r values: Alternaria 0.32, Penicillium 0.5). For sera from patients with a positive history and positive skin tests challenged with 11 allergens cited above, the IP assay detected low levels of specific IgE in many cases where the RAST assay was negative (from 10% for June grass to 48% for Alternaria and Penicillium mold antigens). The RAST positivity accompanied by the IP negativity, by contrast, was rarely seen. The superior sensitivity of the IP assay for specific IgE antibodies was achieved by lowering the background "noise" in the IP assay. This was attributed to the following factors: (1) use of individual allergen blanks; (2) 1:5 dilution of the serum sample that minimizes interference from high levels of total IgE antibodies and from allergen-specific IgG antibodies; (3) nonporous nature of the polystyrene immunosorbent surface; and (4) the use of a computer data reduction system to normalize the assay results.

Allergens↗
PubMed2004

Species and cultivar influences on survival and parasitism of fall armyworm.

Interactions between host plant resistance and biological control may benefit or hinder pest management efforts. Turfgrass cultivars have rarely been tested for extrinsic resistance characteristics such as occurrence and performance of beneficial arthropods on plant genotypes with resistance to known turf pests. Parasitism of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), among six turfgrass genotypes was evaluated. The six grasses tested [Sea Isle-1 and 561-79 seashore paspalum, Paspalum vaginatum Swartz; TifSport and TifEagle hybrid Bermuda grass, Cynodon dactylon (L.) x C. transvaalensis (Burtt-Davy); and Cavalier and Palisades zoysiagrass, Zoysia japonica von Steudel and Z. matrella (L.) Merrill, respectively] represented a range in resistance to S. frugiperda. Differential recovery of larvae released as first instars reflected this gradient in resistance of Cavalier > or = Palisades > or = TifSport = TifEagle > or = 561- = Sea Isle-1 Larval recovery (percentage of initial number released) was greatest in May, less in July and August, and least in October, probably reflecting the increase in activity of on-site predators and disease pressure. Parasitism of the fall armyworm by the braconid Aleiodes laphygmae Viereck varied among turfgrass genotypes. Parasitism was greatest during July. In total, 20,400 first instars were placed in the field; 2,368 were recovered; 468 parasitoids were subsequently reared; 92.2% were A. laphygmae. In the field, the greatest percentage of reduction in S. frugiperda larvae by A. laphygmae occurred on the armyworm-susceptible seashore paspalums (51.9% on Sea Isle-1 in July). Cotesia marginiventris Cresson and Meteorus sp. also were reared from collected larvae. No parasitoids were reared from larvae collected from resistant Cavalier zoysiagrass. A. laphygmae and C. marginiventris were reared from larvae collected from the other five grass cultivars. No parasitoids of older larvae or pupae were observed.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Bioassays for Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquito oviposition attractants and stimulants.

Bioassay methods for mosquito oviposition attractants and stimulants were developed and compared, using Culex tarsalis Coq. gravid females as test insects, and distilled water, dyed water, or Bermuda grass infusions as the test stimuli. Bioassays with sticky screens covering jars containing volatile test stimuli or with colorless and odorless Triton X100 surfactant in the aqueous oviposition medium demonstrated that gravid mosquitoes were attracted to distilled water, with the attraction increased by the addition of dye, grass infusion, or the steam distillate of grass infusion to the water. A variation of the sticky screen bioassay was used to demonstrate that the grass infusion also contained oviposition stimulants. A forced oviposition bioassay was minimally useful, because it failed to discriminate between a solution known to contain oviposition stimulants and a distilled-water control. Overall, the bioassays developed can be used to distinguish between oviposition attractants and stimulants, a distinction that cannot be made by simply counting egg rafts.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

How helpful is the radioallergosorbent test in the diagnosis of allergic disease?

We compared the results of clinical history, skin testing, and radioallergosorbent test (RAST) scores on 274 patients seen in an allergy clinic, using nine different allergens, namely ragweed, oak, Bermuda grass, redtop, Timothy, Alternaria, cat hair, house dust, and dust mite. More than 90% of patients who reported clinical allergy to pollens had a positive skin test to the respective allergen. Only two thirds of these patients also had a positive RAST, while only one patient in this group had a positive RAST and a negative skin test. Of the patients reporting allergy to cat hair, 60% had a positive RAST but only 46% had a positive skin test. For the case of dust allergy, there was poor agreement between test results and history, since more than half of the patients who reported symptoms from dust exposure had a negative RAST and negative skin test results.

False Negative Reactions↗
PubMed2001

Possible use of arthrodesis for intractable sacroiliitis in spondylarthropathy: report of two cases.

STUDY DESIGN: Two cases of successful sacroiliac joint arthrodesis for medically intractable aseptic sacroiliitis are reported. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Although successful arthrodesis of the sacroiliac joint had been reported previously for septic sacroiliitis, no report had shown the procedure to be effective for spondylarthropathy. METHODS: Two women with spondylarthropathy involving very painful sacroiliac arthritis for 18 and 24 months had been relieved only transiently by several injections of steroids into the sacroiliac joint under fluoroscopy and by Bermuda casts. Both patients underwent sacroiliac joint arthrodesis. RESULTS: Both patients showed dramatic improvement after sacroiliac joint arthrodesis. Moreover, no relapses had occurred, respectively, after 2 and 3 years of follow-up evaluation despite continuing spondylarthropathy in other joints. CONCLUSIONS: After a careful selection of patients, including positive blocks in the sacroiliac joint, arthrodesis of sacroiliac joint might be considered for so-called "intractable" aseptic sacroiliitis.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Ecological speciation in tropical reef fishes.

The high biodiversity in tropical seas provides a long-standing challenge to allopatric speciation models. Physical barriers are few in the ocean and larval dispersal is often extensive, a combination that should reduce opportunities for speciation. Yet coral reefs are among the most species-rich habitats in the world, indicating evolutionary processes beyond conventional allopatry. In a survey of mtDNA sequences of five congeneric west Atlantic reef fishes (wrasses, genus Halichoeres) with similar dispersal potential, we observed phylogeographical patterns that contradict expectations of geographical isolation, and instead indicate a role for ecological speciation. In Halichoeres bivittatus and the species pair Halichoeres radiatus/brasiliensis, we observed strong partitions (3.4% and 2.3% divergence, respectively) between adjacent and ecologically distinct habitats, but high genetic connectivity between similar habitats separated by thousands of kilometres. This habitat partitioning is maintained even at a local scale where H. bivittatus lineages are segregated between cold- and warm-water habitats in both Bermuda and Florida. The concordance of evolutionary partitions with habitat types, rather than conventional biogeographical barriers, indicates parapatric ecological speciation, in which adaptation to alternative environmental conditions in adjacent locations overwhelms the homogenizing effect of dispersal. This mechanism can explain the long-standing enigma of high biodiversity in coral reef faunas.

Adaptation, Biological↗
PubMed2006

Are there differences in immune function between continental and insular birds?

Generally, immune system architecture varies with different environments, which presumably reflect different pathogen pressures. Specifically, populations from relatively disease-free, oceanic islands are expected to exhibit reorganized immune systems, which might be characterized by attenuated responses, given the costs of immune function. Some insular animals exhibit an 'island syndrome,' including increased susceptibility to disease, and some insular populations have declined when they failed to resist infection by introduced pathogens. I measured eight indices of immune function (haemolysis, haemagglutination, concentration of haptoglobin and concentration of five leukocyte types) in 15 phylogenetically matched pairs of bird populations from North America and from the islands of Hawaii, Bermuda and the Galápagos. Immune responses were not attenuated in insular birds, and several indices, including the concentration of plasma haptoglobin, were elevated. Thus, I find no support for the specific hypothesis that depauperate parasite communities and the costs of immune defences select for reduced immune function. Instead, I suggest that life on islands leads to an apparent reorganization of immune function, which is defined by increases in defences that are innate and inducible. These increases might signal that systems of acquired humoral immunity and immunological memory are less important or dysfunctional in island populations.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Global phylogeographic limits of Hawaii's avian malaria.

The introduction of avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) to Hawaii has provided a model system for studying the influence of exotic disease on naive host populations. Little is known, however, about the origin or the genetic variation of Hawaii's malaria and traditional classification methods have confounded attempts to place the parasite within a global ecological and evolutionary context. Using fragments of the parasite mitochondrial gene cytochrome b and the nuclear gene dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase obtained from a global survey of greater than 13000 avian samples, we show that Hawaii's avian malaria, which can cause high mortality and is a major limiting factor for many species of native passerines, represents just one of the numerous lineages composing the morphological parasite species. The single parasite lineage detected in Hawaii exhibits a broad host distribution worldwide and is dominant on several other remote oceanic islands, including Bermuda and Moorea, French Polynesia. The rarity of this lineage in the continental New World and the restriction of closely related lineages to the Old World suggest limitations to the transmission of reproductively isolated parasite groups within the morphological species.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

"Candidatus Phytoplasma oryzae", a novel phytoplasma taxon associated with rice yellow dwarf disease.

In addition to rice yellow dwarf (RYD) phytoplasma, several phytoplasmas infect gramineous plants, including rice orange leaf, bermuda grass white leaf, brachiaria grass white leaf and sugarcane white leaf phytoplasmas. To investigate whether the RYD phytoplasma is a discrete, species-level taxon, several isolates of the aforementioned phytoplasmas were analysed using PCR-amplified 16S rDNA sequences. Two RYD isolates, RYD-J(T) and RYD-Th, were almost identical (99.2 %), but were distinct (similarities of 96.3-97.9 %) from other phytoplasma isolates of the RYD 16S-group. The notion that the RYD phytoplasma constitutes a unique taxon is also supported by its unique insect vector (Nephotettix sp.), its unique host plant in nature (rice) and its limited geographical distribution (Asia). In Southern blot analysis, chromosomal and extrachromosomal DNA probes of the RYD phytoplasma reportedly did not hybridize with those of closely related phytoplasmas. These properties of the RYD phytoplasma clearly indicate that it represents a novel taxon, 'Candidatus Phytoplasma oryzae'.

Base Sequence↗
PubMed2003

Parvularcula bermudensis gen. nov., sp. nov., a marine bacterium that forms a deep branch in the alpha-Proteobacteria.

Two bacterial strains, HTCC2503T and HTCC2517, were isolated from the Bermuda Atlantic Time Series Station in the western Sargasso Sea, Atlantic Ocean, by new high-throughput culture methods that rely on dilution to extinction in very-low-nutrient media. Characterization of the two strains by polyphasic approaches revealed that they belonged to the same species. These isolates are gram-negative, strictly aerobic, chemoheterotrophic, slightly motile short rods with a single flagellum. The temperature, pH and NaCl concentration ranges for growth were 10-37 degrees C, 6.0-9.0 and 0.75-20% (w/v), respectively. Colonies on marine agar were very small (0.3-0.8 mm in diameter), yellowish-brown and very hard. Carotenoid pigments were synthesized but bacteriochlorophyll a was not. Several kinds of pentose, hexose, sugar alcohol, oligosaccharide and amino acid were utilized as sole carbon sources. Oxidase was produced, but catalase was not. All cellular fatty acids were even-numbered monounsaturated or saturated fatty acids and the major fatty acid was cis-7-octadecenoic acid (73.3%). The DNA G + C content of strain HTCC2503T was 60.8 mol%. Phylogenetic analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences clearly indicated that the strains formed a distinct lineage, allied with activated sludge environmental clone H9, in the alpha-Proteobacteria. The clade containing strains HTCC2503T and HTCC2517 and clone H9 could not be phylogenetically associated with any of the six known orders of the alpha-Proteobacteria. From this polyphasic evidence, it is proposed that the novel strains should be classified as Parvularcula bermudensis gen. nov., sp. nov. The type strain is HTCC2503T (= ATCC BAA-594T = KCTC 12087T) and the reference strain is HTCC2517.

Alphaproteobacteria↗
PubMed2004

'Candidatus Phytoplasma', a taxon for the wall-less, non-helical prokaryotes that colonize plant phloem and insects.

The trivial name 'phytoplasma' has been adopted to collectively name wall-less, non-helical prokaryotes that colonize plant phloem and insects, which were formerly known as mycoplasma-like organisms. Although phytoplasmas have not yet been cultivated in vitro, phylogenetic analyses based on various conserved genes have shown that they represent a distinct, monophyletic clade within the class Mollicutes. It is proposed here to accommodate phytoplasmas within the novel genus 'Candidatus (Ca.) Phytoplasma'. Given the diversity within 'Ca. Phytoplasma', several subtaxa are needed to accommodate organisms that share <97.5% similarity among their 16S rRNA gene sequences. This report describes the properties of 'Ca. Phytoplasma', a taxon that includes the species 'Ca. Phytoplasma aurantifolia' (the prokaryote associated with witches'-broom disease of small-fruited acid lime), 'Ca. Phytoplasma australiense' (associated with Australian grapevine yellows), 'Ca. Phytoplasma fraxini' (associated with ash yellows), 'Ca. Phytoplasma japonicum' (associated with Japanese hydrangea phyllody), 'Ca. Phytoplasma brasiliense' (associated with hibiscus witches'-broom in Brazil), 'Ca. Phytoplasma castaneae' (associated with chestnut witches'-broom in Korea), 'Ca. Phytoplasma asteris' (associated with aster yellows), 'Ca. Phytoplasma mali' (associated with apple proliferation), 'Ca. Phytoplasma phoenicium' (associated with almond lethal disease), 'Ca. Phytoplasma trifolii' (associated with clover proliferation), 'Ca. Phytoplasma cynodontis' (associated with Bermuda grass white leaf), 'Ca. Phytoplasma ziziphi' (associated with jujube witches'-broom), 'Ca. Phytoplasma oryzae' (associated with rice yellow dwarf) and six species-level taxa for which the Candidatus species designation has not yet been formally proposed (for the phytoplasmas associated with X-disease of peach, grapevine flavescence dorée, Central American coconut lethal yellows, Tanzanian lethal decline of coconut, Nigerian lethal decline of coconut and loofah witches'-broom, respectively). Additional species are needed to accommodate organisms that, despite their 16S rRNA gene sequence being >97.5% similar to those of other 'Ca. Phytoplasma' species, are characterized by distinctive biological, phytopathological and genetic properties. These include 'Ca. Phytoplasma pyri' (associated with pear decline), 'Ca. Phytoplasma prunorum' (associated with European stone fruit yellows), 'Ca. Phytoplasma spartii' (associated with spartium witches'-broom), 'Ca. Phytoplasma rhamni' (associated with buckthorn witches'-broom), 'Ca. Phytoplasma allocasuarinae' (associated with allocasuarina yellows), 'Ca. Phytoplasma ulmi' (associated with elm yellows) and an additional taxon for the stolbur phytoplasma. Conversely, some organisms, despite their 16S rRNA gene sequence being <97.5% similar to that of any other 'Ca. Phytoplasma' species, are not presently described as Candidatus species, due to their poor overall characterization.

Animals↗