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PubMed1996

Camel tick (Acari:Ixodidae) control with pour-on application of flumethrin.

The pyrethroid flumethrin (Bayticol) was tested in camels (Camelus dromedarius) as a pour-on for the control of the camel tick, Hyalomma dromedarii. Two, small, naturally infested camel herds, one heavily infested and the other lightly infested, each composed of eight head of animals, were used for this field trial. In each herd, four camels were randomly selected for treatment and the other four untreated camels were kept as controls. The heavily infested herd was treated with 2 ml 10kg-1 body weight per animal whereas the lightly infested herd was treated with 1 ml 10kg-1 body weight per animal. Comparison of the number of adult ticks on treated animals with those on untreated ones revealed that there were high figures of percentage control within 2 weeks after the application of both dose rates. No side-effects of treatment were observed. This trial has demonstrated that flumethrin is safe and effective when used to control ticks on dromedaries, and the pour-on method for insecticide application is fast and easy and is suitable for use by camel owners in the desert.

Administration, Topical↗
PubMed1979

Epidemiology and control of bovine babesiosis in South Africa.

Babesiosis is the cause of serious economic losses in South Africa and involves most areas with an annual rainfall of more than 400 mm. Both Babesia bigemina and Babesia bovis are present and both are considered to be important. The vectors, distribution and factors influencing enzootic stability of both species are discussed. Except in some areas only marginally suitable for ticks, and where tick control alone may be adequate, control by immunisation is recommended. Short term prevention can be achieved by chemoprophylaxis.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Molecular characterization of a Haemaphysalis longicornis tick salivary gland-associated 29-kilodalton protein and its effect as a vaccine against tick infestation in rabbits.

The use of tick vaccines in mammalian hosts has been shown to be the most promising alternative tick control method to current use of acaricides, which suffers from a number of limitations. However, the success of this method is dependent on the identification, cloning, and in vitro expression of tick molecules involved in the mediation of key physiological roles with respect to the biological success of a tick as a vector and pest. We have sequenced and characterized a Haemaphysalis longicornis tick salivary gland-associated cDNA coding for a 29-kDa extracellular matrix-like protein. This protein is expressed in both unfed and fed immature and mature H. longicornis ticks. The predicted amino acid sequence of p29 shows high homology to sequences of some known extracellular matrix like-proteins with the structural conservation similar to all known collagen proteins. Immunization with the recombinant p29 conferred a significant protective immunity in rabbits, resulting in reduced engorgement weight for adult ticks and up to 40 and 56% mortality in larvae and nymphs that fed on the immunized rabbits. We speculate that this protein is associated with formation of tick cement, a chemical compound that enables the tick to remain attached to the host, and suggest a role for p29 as a candidate tick vaccine molecule for the control of ticks. We have discussed our findings with respect to the search of tick molecules for vaccine candidates.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1995

Vector situation of tick-borne diseases in the Caribbean Islands.

The most important ticks transmitting diseases to ruminants in the Caribbean islands are: Amblyomma variegatum, vector of cowdriosis and associated with acute dermatophilosis; Amblyomma cajennense, potential vector of cowdriosis; Boophilus microplus, vector of babesiosis and anaplasmosis. At the present time, Amblyomma variegatum is widespread in the Lesser Antilles from Barbados to Puerto Rico. The intensity of the tick control program varies in the different islands and the tick infestation in each island ranges from limited foci to widespread infestations. The vector situation appeared stable since 1988 in the Lesser Antilles but the outbreak in 1992 in Puerto Rico emphasized the risk of spread to other islands and to the American mainland, particularly with cattle egrets. Cowdriosis remains apparently limited to Guadeloupe and Antigua. Amblyomma cajennense, experimental vector of cowdriosis, is present in Cuba, Jamaica and Trinidad but also in most American countries. Boophilus microplus is widespread throughout the Caribbean. Its presence and importance are often indirectly estimated by the clinical and serological diagnosis of babesiosis and anaplasmosis. There is no correlation between the intensity of Amblyomma variegatum control in each island of the Lesser Antilles and the effect on the Boophilus microplus population measured by the seroprevalence to babesiosis and anaplasmosis, but within the island of Martinique a regular Amblyomma variegatum control decreases the seroprevalences to babesiosis and anaplasmosis.

Anaplasmosis↗
PubMed1998

Attitudes and practices of Queensland dairy farmers to the control of the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus.

OBJECTIVE: To determine practices for the control of cattle ticks on dairy farms in Queensland, the attitudes of farmers to tick infestations and to identify opportunities for and barriers against the introduction of non-chemical methods of tick control. DESIGN: A survey of 199 dairy farmers from tick-infested parts of Queensland was undertaken by 20 dairy advisers and stock inspectors from October 1996 to June 1997. The sample was a proportional, random selection of dairy farms from four regions. A personal interview was conducted with each farmer and answers to 134 questions were obtained. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Most farmers were not concerned by cattle ticks on their own farms, although they believed that ticks are important to the dairy industry. They were most concerned about the development of chemical resistance by cattle ticks. Inadequate facilities and lack of motivation appeared to be the factors most limiting to improving the methods of control. Most farmers claimed to have only small numbers of ticks at worst. Although a control program recommended by the Queensland Dairyfarmers' Organisation was well regarded by farmers, few had adopted it. Many farmers saw no need to implement a strategic control program.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1990

Methods currently used for the control of multi-host ticks: their validity and proposals for future control strategies.

Ticks have a world distribution and pest status reputation of hampering livestock production through transmission of fatal disease such as theileriosis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, etc. and bites which cause blood loss, pain and other debilitating effects. Control of ticks is largely more effective on the host. The multi-host ticks spend most of the time off the host with short feeding periods of between four and ten days. Chemical control using dips or sprays has been the traditional method of attempting to kill these ticks during the infestation period. In many situations control, using acaricides, has been quite successful. This has been possible through correct timing of the ticks' seasonal activity and feeding periods to determine the application interval, and efficacy of the acaricides. However, the rising costs of acaricides have made it almost impossible to use these chemicals on a regular basis according to the pest problem. This is particularly true in many Third World tropical countries in which tick-associated problems are more pronounced. This has necessitated the search for alternative tick control methods on an integrated approach to pest management. For this reason, vaccination against ticks and breeding for host resistance against ticks are being studied in the hope that future control strategies will involve only the economically effective acaricide application in conjunction with these and other methods.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2002

Dual action ectoparasite vaccine targeting 'exposed' and 'concealed' antigens.

Blood-feeding ectoparasites, such as mosquitoes, sandflies and ticks, transmit many disease agents. Their control relies on large-scale, repeated use of chemical pesticides. An alternative, targeted and environmentally friendly approach is to develop anti-ectoparasite vaccines. We describe a vaccine to control ticks that targets an 'exposed' tick saliva antigen and cross-reacts with 'concealed' tick midgut antigens. Ticks feeding on immunised animals induced a cutaneous inflammatory response and increased antibody titer, while engorged ticks died following damage to their midgut. This dual action, acting at the feeding site and in the midgut, offers a self-sustaining strategy for ectoparasite control boosted by natural infestations.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1986

Chemotherapy of East Coast fever: the long term weight changes, carrier state and disease manifestations of parvaquone treated cattle.

The weight changes, carrier state and nature of chronic disease in cattle following infection with five isolates of Theileria parva and treatment with parvaquone were studied over an 18 month period while the cattle were maintained on normal management under strict tick control. Cattle infected with the T.p. parva Pugu II isolate gained weight similarly to uninfected control cattle and did not develop a detectable carrier state or show chronic disease. The cattle in the 4 other isolate groups regained the weight lost during the initial infection more slowly, then gained weight in parallel to the control cattle. Transmission of infection through ticks was achieved consistently from the T.p. parva Mbita I and Entebbe II isolate infections and intermittently from the T.p. lawrencei Mara II and Manyara infections. Infections were transmitted from cattle which had neither a detectable parasitaemia nor an antitheilerial antibody titre. Persistent macroschizont parasitoses were detected with the T.p. parva Entebbe II and the two T.p. lawrencei infections. The histopathology of the chronic disease lesions is described and the importance of the carrier state discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Risk factors for tick attachment to smallholder dairy cattle in Tanzania.

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Tanga and Iringa regions of Tanzania, and a longitudinal study in Tanga, to investigate tick-control methods and other factors influencing tick attachment to the cattle of smallholder dairy farms. Most farmers reported applying acaricides at intervals of 1-2 weeks, most used acaricides that require on-farm dilution and most farmers incorrectly diluted the acaricides. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Boophilus spp. ticks were those most-frequently encountered on the cattle, but few cattle carried ticks of any species (only 13 and 4.6% of tick counts of the cattle yielded adult R. appendiculatus and Boophilus spp., respectively). Animals were more likely to carry one or more adult Boophilus spp. ticks if they also carried one or more R. appendiculatus adults (OR=14.4, CI=9.2, 22.5). The use of pour-on acaricides was associated with lower odds that animals carried a R. appendiculatus tick (OR=0.29, CI=0.18, 0.49) but higher odds that they carried a Boophilus spp. tick (OR=2.48, CI=1.55, 3.97). Animals >4 months old and those with a recent history of grazing had higher odds of carrying either a R. appendiculatus (ORs=3.41 and 2.58, CIs=2.34, 4.98 and 1.80, 3.71), or a Boophilus spp. tick (ORs=5.70 and 2.18, CIs=2.34, 4.98 and 1.49. 3.25), but zero-grazing management did not prevent ticks attaching to cattle even when combined with high-frequency acaricide treatments. The odds that animals carried ticks varied amongst the agro-ecological zones (AEZs) and administrative districts where the farms were situated-but there was still considerable residual variation in tick infestation at the farm level.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2001

Histochemical localization of esterases in the integument of the female Boophilus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) tick.

The cattle tick Boophilus microplus (Canestrini) is one of the most important ectoparasites affecting tropical cattle with worldwide distribution. Application of organophosphate compounds (OP) is extensively used as a tick control method. However, the appearance of ticks resistant to the OP decreases the therapeutic efficacy of such compounds. Esterases have been implicated as potential biochemical mechanisms for detoxification in B. microplus larvae. We found increased esterase activity in the inner layers of the integument of OP resistant adult female B. microplus ticks as compared with the OP susceptible ticks. We discuss the potential role of these enzymes during acaricide metabolism and propose future research.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Acaricidal properties of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel (tea tree oil) against nymphs of Ixodes ricinus.

The aim of the study was to examine the acaricidal effect of essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil, TTO) at different doses (4, 6, 8 and 10 microl) and for different exposure times (30, 60, 90 and 120 min) on nymphs of Ixodes ricinus. A dose of 8 microl TTO was lethal for more than 70% of ticks when inhaled and this effect was enhanced when the dose was increased to 10 microl (> 80%). The effect was correlated with the duration of exposure of ticks to TTO, with a significant effect being observed after 90 min exposure. The findings show that TTO has acaricidal properties and could be extremely useful in controlling ticks that are efficient vectors of pathogens.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

The natural control of heartwater vectors.

Socio-economic factors and environmental considerations have increasingly encouraged the search for methods of tick control other than acaricidal treatment. Biological control management regimes have, so far, not proved to be sound replacements for acaricides. The major natural control methods employed successfully at present are host resistance and pasture management. The former has been extensively studied and utilized in a one-host-tick situation, and its potential specificity for the Amblyomma species is discussed. Pasture management in the form of tick-resistant plants and habitat modification affecting vector ecology and viability is discussed, as is host availability. Parasites and predators affecting tick populations are gleaned over with the accent on predacious birds (Buphagus species) which may play a limited role in integrated control programmes. Reference is made to the possibilities of genetic manipulation, problems accompanying the implementation of sterile male techniques, and hybrid sterility. In conclusion, a plea is made to ensure a thorough understanding of target vector ecology before any control measures are employed. This should be preferably from an integrated point of view rather than from a standpoint of unilateral reliance.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

The significance of recent highlights in heartwater research.

Many of the objectives identified earlier, with regard to research on cowdriosis, have been achieved during the past decade. Some contributions such as the development of Cowdria specific DNA probes and the attenuation of the organisms are still in the experimental stage but others, such as in vitro cultivation, are already well established practices in many laboratories. Serological techniques are now more widely used since other methods and other sources of antigen became available. However, persistent cross reactions with Ehrlichia still complicate the interpretation of epidemiological data. Biochemical studies to identify, isolate and characterize antigenic proteins present in Cowdria organisms revealed definite immunodominant proteins that could prove to be suitable antigens for serological tests. Despite these significant research advances, practical methods to diagnose and control the disease have remained virtually unchanged. Control is still based on either intensive tick control or in some cases on the establishment and maintenance of endemic stability. The infection and treatment method using infected blood or prophylactic treatment with tetracyclines, remains the backbone of disease control in South Africa. Heartwater will remain a threat to the American mainland for as long as Amblyomma variegatum is present in the Caribbean and eradication of the tick from that region seems indicated.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Ixodid ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) and livestock production: effect of varying acaricide treatments on ticks and productivity in east coast fever-immunized weaner and dairy cattle.

In a pilot trial to evaluate cost-effective methods of acaricide application, east coast fever-immunized weaner and dairy cattle were subjected to varying tick control regimens. All experimental cattle were maintained under the same extensive system of management. Their monthly tick load, packed cell volumes, incidence of blood protozoans, weight changes, and daily milk production were noted. Apart from Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann, other tick species found in the study site were R. pulchellus Gerstacker, Amblyomma gemma Donitz, Boophilus decoloratus Koch, and A. variegatum F. The control group under a weekly regimen of dipping had fewer ticks than each of the other groups for both weaner and dairy cattle. However, the percentage of increase in weight of the weaner cattle was least for the control group. The milk production of none of the groups was significantly different from that of the control group, although profit per animal for groups maintained under a monthly or six-weekly regimen of acaricide use was highest. The age of the experimental dairy cattle was found not to have any effect on their milk production. It is suggested that with successful immunization against east coast fever, both dairy and weaner cattle may be subjected to reduced dipping or spraying, the level of relaxation being dependent on the tick challenge. However, similar studies should be carried out in as many agroecological zones as possible using different breeds of cattle. Information on the level of acaricide residues in livestock products from different farming systems should also be generated. Only then can a definitive recommendation for a change from the present national intensive dipping policy be made.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Ticks as the main target of human tick-borne disease control: Russian practical experience and its lessons.

For several decades, the emphasis in human tick-borne disease control has been on the epidemiologically-based preventive (non-specific) approach where tick vectors were the main target of control impact. A long-term, large-scale campaign for controlling the taiga tick Ixodes persulcatus, the main vector of tick-borne encephalitis, was carried out in Russia in the 1950s to 1970s. The practical experience accumulated during that campaign could be of great value for the current development of strategies of tick-borne disease control. A general scheme of human protection from tick-borne diseases is presented where the required investment into protection is proportional to the risk of human infection and particular strategies of control and protection are differentiated. The critical point in the preventive approach is the necessity of radical tick suppression in the areas with the highest risk of human infection that can be successfully achieved only through chemical treatment directed at the eradication of the entire tick population. The following aspects are considered: the tick population (or a group of populations) as a desirable target of any acaricidal impact (biological and geographic aspects, the fate of the population after treatment); the advantage of long-term planning for control campaigns; and the influence of acaricidal impact on foci of tick-borne diseases. The conception of losses of potential pesticidal impact efficacy provides much room for the improvement of conventional tick control strategies making them more efficient and safe to the environment. The current tendency to make humans the main target of control through vaccination and/or medical treatment (specific approach) does not fit the objectives of effective human protection from tick-borne diseases, especially because of a tick population's ability to carry and transmit more than one pathogen over the same area.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Progress towards a program for the eradication of Amblyomma variegatum from the Caribbean.

Amblyomma variegatum (Fabricius), the tropical bont tick, is now widely distributed in the Caribbean. Eighteen islands countries are now or were recently infested with the tick. To stop the spread of this tick to other non-infested islands and to the mainland areas of South, Central and North America, a regional eradication program has been proposed and endorsed by the respective governments on each of the Amblyomma variegatum infested islands, including the French government and CARICOM member and associate member countries. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) was requested by CARICOM, on behalf of member and associate member governments to: develop eradication proposals; assist CARICOM member countries to maintain existing Amblyomma tick control programs; advise and assist with the drafting of legislation required for implementation of an eradication program; assist in the identification of funds to implement the eradication program and, if funding was obtained, coordinate the eradication campaign against this tick on all infested islands. The current distribution of the tick and the status of the proposed eradication program in the Caribbean are discussed.

Animals↗